

#An Irish Astronomical Tract


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#### Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition


### Background details and bibliographic information


An Irish Astronomical Tract
===========================


Author: [unknown]
-----------------


### File Description

Electronic edition compiled by Beatrix Färber, Ruth Murphy

Funded by University College, Cork and  
Professor Marianne McDonald via the CELT Project,
 formerly CURIA 2. Second draft.Extent of text: 98800 words#### Publication


CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts: a project of
 University College, Cork  
College Road, Cork,
 Ireland—http://www.ucc.ie/celt

 (2004) (2018) Distributed by CELT online at University College, Cork,
 Ireland.  
Text ID Number: G600030Availability [RESTRICTED] 
Available with prior consent of the CELT project for
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#### Notes

1. This Irish recension of an Astronomical Tract of
 Messahalla (Masha'allah) combines matters cosmographical and
 astronomical with subject matter regarded as astrological
 today. 2. You can purchase the book(s) containing this text
 via the ITS website (http://www.irishtextssociety.org/).
 Click on the link to the RIA shop.

#### Sources


**MS sources for Irish translations of the work**2. Stowe, B II 1; Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
 Electronically available, with cataloguing information, on
 the ISOS Project (http://www.isos.dias.ie).
3. Z 2. 2. 1. (olim V. 3. 1. 38); Marsh's Library,
 Dublin.
4. 23 F 13; Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
**MS sources for Latin base text (from which a
 substantial portion of the Irish text derives)**2. British Library L 3. B. 32 (transcript of 'De
 Scientia Motus Orbis').
**Printed sources for Latin base text**2. De Scientia Motus Orbis, translated from Arab
 into Latin by Gerard of Sabionetta, edited by J. Stabius,
 printed by Johann Weissenburger, Nuremburg 1504.
3. De Elementis et Orbibus Celestibus, edited by
 Joachim Heller, Noribergae (Nuremburg) 1549 (re-edition of
 Gerard of Sabionetta's work, contains 27 chapters).
**Messahalah (Masha'allah) and his work**2. Edward Stewart Kennedy and David Pingree, The
 Astrological History of Masha'allah, Harvard University
 Press, Cambridge/Mass., 1971 (with full
 bibliography).
3. Liber Messahallae de revolutione annorum mundi,
 edited by Joachim Heller, Noribergae (Nuremburg)
 1549.
4. Epistola Messahallae de rebus eclipsium et de
 coniunctionibus planetarum in revolutionibus annorum
 mundi, translated into Latin by Ioannes Hispalensis and
 edited by Joachim Heller, Noribergae (Nuremburg) 1549; and
 by N. Pruckner in: Iulii Firmici Materni Astronomicon
 Libri VIII, Basilae (Basle) 1551, 115–118, as
 'Messahalach de ratione circuli et stellarum et qualiter
 operantur in hoc seculo'.
5. Liber Messahalae de receptione, edited by
 Joachim Heller, Noribergae (Nuremburg) 1549.
**Secondary literature (about this tract, and other
 Irish Astronomical texts)**2. Charles Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus
 Hibernicis. ... Published from the MSS, Vol. vi., part ii.
 (Dublin 1804).
3. J. J. O'Farrelly, Irish Cosmographical Tract:
 Transcription of the Irish Text with contractions
 retained. [From Stowe B II 1]. Unpublished handwritten
 manuscript, MS 3A7, 852, Royal Irish Academy Library,
 1893.
4. J. J. O'Farrelly, Irish Cosmographical Tract:
 Transcription of the Irish Text, with contractions in
 Irish extended with reference to Marsh copy and to RIA
 copy 2. Unpublished handwritten manuscript, MS 3A10, 855,
 Royal Irish Academy Library, 1893.
5. J. J. O'Farrelly, Irish Cosmographical Tract:
 English Translation. Unpublished handwritten manuscript,
 MS 3A8, 853, Royal Irish Academy Library, 1893.
6. Maxwell H. Close, Remarks on a Cosmographical
 Tractate in the Irish Language, Proceedings of the Royal
 Irish Academy, Vol. VI (1900–02)
 457–464.
7. J. J. O'Farrelly/Maxwell H. Close, Irish
 Astronomical Tract: Introduction, Comments and Appendices.
 Unpublished handwritten manuscript, MS 3A9, 854, Royal
 Irish Academy Library, 1901. [Contains O'Farrelly's typed
 translation and handwritten annotations by Close.]
8. J. E. Gore, 'An Irish Astronomical Tract', in:
 'Knowledge & Scientific News'; February, 1909.
9. Maura Power, Chapters 8, 39, and a portion of
 chapter 9, with another small fragment of the text, were
 published with the same English translation of the 1914
 edition in Celtia, a pan-Celtic monthly magazine, 11
 (London, The Celtic Association) 54–6; 90–92;
 101–103.
10. Tomás Ó Concheanainn, The Scribe
 of the Irish Astronomical Tract in the Royal Irish
 Academy, B II 1, Celtica 11 (1976) 158–167.
11. Mario Esposito, An Unpublished Astronomical
 Treatise by the Irish Monk Dicuil. Dublin: Hodges/Figgis
 1907. PRIA vol. 26, Section C, no. 15, 378–446.
 Reprinted in: Mario Esposito, Irish Books and Learning in
 Mediaeval Europe, Ch. 7, Variorum 1990. (Edited from MS
 4.4.3, [=Mangart no. 386], Bibliothèque Municipale
 de Valenciennes, ff. 66–118.)
12. Mario Esposito (ed.), A Ninth-Century
 Astronomical Treatise, in: Modern Philology 18, Chicago
 1920–21, 177–188. Reprinted in: Mario
 Esposito, Irish Books and Learning in Mediaeval Europe,
 Ch. 8, Variorum 1990. (Contains fresh collation of printed
 text with MS 4.4.3, Bibliothèque Municipale de
 Valenciennes, ff. 66–118, and emendations).
13. Bartholomei Anglici 'De proprietatibus rerum
 liber octavus'. Leagan Gaeilge ó thús na
 15ú aoise. Ed. by Gearóid Mac Niocaill,
 Celtica 8 (1968) 201–242; 9 (1971) 266–315.
 (Early 15th century translation of the book of astronomy,
 based on MS TCD H 2 8; with a Latin text.) [Reviews by
 Tomás Ó Concheanainn, in Éigse 13
 (1969/70) 247f.; Éigse 14 (1971/72) 161.]
14. An Irish Corpus Astronomiae (being Manus
 O'Donnell's seventeenth century version of the Lunario of
 Geronymo Cortès), ed. by F. W. O'Connell and R. M.
 Henry, London 1915.
15. John A. Williams, The Irish Astronomical Tract:
 a case study of scientific terminology in 14th century
 Irish. M. Phil. Thesis, University of Sydney, 2002.
 Contains a revised translation. Electronically available
 at:
 http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/adt/public\_html/adt-NU/public/adt-NU20030430.161139/
16. Mary Kelly and Charles Doherty (eds), Music and the Stars: Mathematics in Medieval Ireland (Dublin 2013).
**Secondary literature (General)**2. Donald K. Yeomans, Comets: a chronological
 history of observation, science, myth, and folklore. New
 York: Wiley, 1991.
3. Edward Grant, Planets, stars and orbs: the
 medieval cosmos, 1200–1687. Cambridge: Cambridge
 University Press 1996.
4. The Cambridge illustrated history of astronomy,
 ed. Michael Hoskin. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge
 University Press 1997.
**The edition used in the digital edition**2. An Irish Astronomical Tract. Based in
 part on a mediaeval Latin version of a work by
 Messahalah. Maura Power (ed), First edition [xviii + 176 pp.] Irish Texts SocietyLondon (1914) (reprinted 1994) . Irish Texts Society [Cumann na Sgríbheann
 Gaedhilge]. , No. 14

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Contents of printed edition: Preface i–xi; frontispiece and transcription xvii–xviii; text and translation 2–159; glossary 161–176; notes 177. The electronic text represents pages i–xi and pages 2–159 of the volume. The first text consists of the even pages with the Irish document, the second consists of the odd pages with Power's English translation. A second revised and annotated English translation compiled by J. A. Williams, based on the translations of Power and O'Farrelly/Close follows. NB: Without recourse to the manuscript, in some cases doubts remain as to where an apparatus entry starts, since the hardcopy text does not indicate this. It is hoped to clarify this in a revised electronic edition. 


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Created: Date range: c.1300–1350 [Irish text].
 (1913 [Power's translation]) 
 (2002 [William's translation]) #### Use of language


##### Language: [GA] The text is in Early Modern Irish.


##### Language: [EN] Introduction, footnotes, appendix and the two translations are in English.


##### Language: [LA] Some words and phrases in Latin.


##### Language: [FR] One quote in the introduction is in French.


##### Language: [AR] One word is in Arabic.


### Revision History


* (2018-02-01) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Bibliographic detail added.
* (2012-11-13) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Minor additions to personal names encoding made.
* (2010-04-03) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Names encoding updated.
* (2008-09-01) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Keywords added.
* (2008-07-27) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Value of div0 "type" attribute modified, content of
 'langUsage' revised; minor modifications made to
 header.
* (2007-12-14) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Note inserted in header.
* (2005-08-25) Julianne Nyhan (ed.)

* Normalised language codes and edited langUsage for XML
 conversion
* (2005-08-04T16:14:00+0100) Peter Flynn (ed.)

* Converted to XML
* (2004-04-29) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Figure entities integrated into SGML file; and changes
 to DTD made.
* (2004-03-09) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Images integrated into HTML file.
* (2004-03-03) Benjamin Hazard (ed.)

* Images scanned from hardcopy.
* (2003-10-29) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Final proofing of whole file; file re-parsed; HTML file
 of Irish text created.
* (2003-10-18) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Bibliography compiled; header completed; apostrophes and
 hyphens introduced.
* (2003-09-26) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* File parsed; introduction, Irish text and apparatus
 re-proofed; expansions tagged.
* (2003-08-04) Ruth Murphy (ed.)

* Second proofing and structural mark up of Preface.
 Markup of personal names and supplied text in the Irish
 file. Revision of structural markup and insertion of
 apparatus in Irish file and witness list in header.
 Structural markup and second proofing of the English
 translation.
* (2003-02-04) Ruth Murphy (ed.)

* Second proofing of Irish text; and more structural
 markup applied.
* (2003-01-23) Máirín Mac Carron (ed.)

* First proofing of Irish text, and Power's English
 translation; basic structural markup applied.
* (2003-01-22) Beatrix Färber (ed.)

* Provisional header constructed.
* (2003-01-16) Julianne Nyhan; Marcos Balé (Text capture)

* Text captured by scanning.




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#### Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition: G600030


### An Irish Astronomical Tract: Author: [unknown]


### Acknowlegements


CELT is indebted to Professor Aoibheann Nic Dhonnchadha, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, who first suggested to make an electronic edition of this tract available, for kindly giving of her time and assistance in this work, and for examining the manuscripts to resolve some uncertainties in the variant readings. CELT is also indebted to John A. Williams, M. Phil., University of Sydney, for his kind permission to use the revised translation published in his Thesis, and for supplying valuable bibliographical references, and to Dr Daniel Mc Carthy, Trinity College Dublin, for comparing the translations, for making helpful comments on the text and diagrams, and for supplying valuable bibliographical references.


### List of witnesses


* **B**: Stowe, B II 1., R.I.A. A vellum MS. containing 12 leaves.
The text is illustrated. Inside the cover are inserted some sheets of paper
written by Col. Vallancey, Dr. Parsons and Mr. Astle on the subject of the
MS.
* **Z**: Z 2 2 1. (olim V 3 1 38), Marsh's Library, Dublin. A vellum of 11 leaves very well preserved in double
columns.
* **F**: 23 F 13., R.I.A. A vellum MS. of 8 leaves in very bad
condition. Dated by O'Curry to circa A.D. 1400.




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p.i


PREFACE
-------




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p.ii


Sources of the Work
-------------------


To the researches of **Mr. Close** we are indebted for our knowledge of one of the Latin texts which is the source of the major part of the work in hand.


Two-thirds of the tract are part paraphrase and part translation according to **Mr. Close**, of a Latin version of an Arabic treatise by **Messahalah or Mascha Allah**, a Jewish astronomer of **Alexandria**, who flourished shortly before 800 A.D. This work was translated into Latin by **Gerard of **Sabionetta****, near **Cremona**, in the thirteenth century, and, edited by **J. Stabius**, was printed at **Nuremburg** in 1504 under the title De Scientia Motus Orbis. A transcript of this, obtained by **Mr. Close** from a copy in the British Museum, is in the Academy Library.


My translation of the Irish text had already been made when this was found, but it was not too late to make use of the help it furnished in the rendering of certain passages evidently misunderstood by the Irish translator. This transcript is now numbered 3. B. 32. Gerard's work was
again edited by **Joachim Heller**, under the title
 De Elementis et Orbibus Celestibus,


---

p.iii




and reprinted at **Nuremburg** in 1549. A comparison of the opening words of the chapters in these two editions with the Latin headings of the Irish text led **Mr. Close** to the conclusion that the Irish translator worked from a text different from either of the above. In **Mr. Close**'s MS. notes we read:—‘There is a MS. of the Latin of this work of **Messahalah** in the Bodleian Library (MS. Ashmole, 393). It agrees closely with that edited by **Stabius** and **Heller**.’ However, as **Mr. Close** has not attempted to define the relationship between this Bodleian MS. and the Irish text, and as I have not had an opportunity of examining this Latin MS., the question of the origin of the different versions cannot at present be pursued further.


The Irish text cannot be said to be a literal translation of **Stabius**. It is rather an adaptation. In parts the rendering is indeed literal, but there is scarcely a chapter where there is not either more or less matter than in the corresponding Latin version. These additions, if they can be so designated, are not mere interpolations in so far as they are not detrimental to the sense, nor do they differ in language or style from the passages for which we have corresponding Latin. In the same way the omissions do not leave gaps in the arguments, and it is quite probable that this edition of **Stabius** is not the actual original of the Irish rendering, and the Irish translator may have had some other edition of **Gerard of **Sabionetta****'s work before him.


The portion of the text not in the Latin of **Stabius** consists of the introductory remarks down to the table of contents and chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 35, 36, 37 (34, 35, 36 according to numbering of the English translation from which **Mr. Close** worked). Of the original of these chapters nothing is known. They are evidently drawn from another Latin text or texts, and some of them are apparently of much later date than **Messahalah**'s


---

p.iv




work; for instance in chapter VII., the mention of spectacles, which did not come into use until the early 14th century; but again this may be a mere interpolation of the Irish writer.


**Mr. Close** remarks that in chapter 36 (35) the habitable regions of the earth are carried further north than they would have been in **Messahalah**'s time, and points out some statements in these chapters contradictory to the teachings of **Messahalah**. It is noteworthy that the interesting chapters on geology (8), that on mineral springs (9), that on volcanoes (10), on the tides (11), on the Nile (12), the seven habitable regions (36) are non-Messahalic and non-astronomical, so it would seem that the source from which these chapters were taken was cosmographical rather than purely astronomical.


The Messahalic astronomy is in the main that of **Ptolemy**; but I do not propose to discuss the subject here, nor the treatment it has received at the hands of the Irish translator, as **Mr. Close** deals with it in much detail in his article, to which I again refer my readers.


There is, however, just one error in the same article due to the entire omission of two words in the text which are at first sight unintelligible owing to a mistake on the part of the scribe. **Mr. Close** was greatly surprised that in chapter 35 (34) the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is taken as 3 to 1, **Archimedes**
having shown long before even **Messahalah**'s time, that the ratio is between 3 10/70 and 3 10/71, and
**Alfergani**, a contemporary of **Messahalah**, made it equivalent to 3 1/7.


The text here contains a curious error which can be easily corrected. It runs tri mile & feth. It is evident that the scribe intended to write s instead of f and, if we read tri mile & seacht*m*adh, we get the fraction correctly.




---

p.v


The MSS.
--------


The text is contained in three MSS.:—
1. Stowe, B. II. 1. R.I.A.
2. Z. 2. 2. 1. (until recently numbered V. 3. 1. 38), in Marsh's Library, Dublin.
3. 23. F. 13. R.I.A.



1. A vellum MS., in very good preservation, containing 12 leaves, written
in a small, neat hand in double columns. With it are bound 5 leaves of a
medical tract apparently a translation from Latin. The last page is quite
illegible. The text is illustrated by neatly executed diagrams, a few of
which, however, are incorrect and do not agree with the text.


The first page is occupied by an astronomical rotula with a movable
index, containing names of the Signs of the Zodiac and the planets in Latin;
also the names of the months and the numeral figures. At the top of the page
is a Lunar Calendar and a list of weights and measures which are very
difficult to decipher owing to stains on the MS. At the foot of the rotula
is a note in Irish explaining the connection between the signs of the Zodiac
and the human anatomy, portion of which is illegible. The contents of this
page are entirely absent from the other MSS. It is reproduced as the
frontispiece to this volume.


Inside the cover are inserted some sheets of paper written by **Col. Vallancey**, **Dr. Parsons**
and **Mr. Astle** on the subject of the MS., which
throw some light on its later history. It was bought by **Thomas Astle, Keeper of the Records in the Tower of London**, in 1763. He evidently asked **Dr. Parsons F.R.S.**, and member of the Society of Antiquaries, to examine the MS., and report on it to him; which he did in the letter here preserved. With the assurance that accompanies ignorance, **Dr. Parsons**
states that he found it to be ‘very valuable on several accounts; first for its antiquity, as it was


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p.vi




certainly written within the century of the conversion of the people to Christianity by **St. Patrick**; for this is the most pure and ancient character of the Magogian tongue from which the Greek and every other alphabet of Europe had its rise.’ The letter continues in the same strain. It is 
dated 6th June, 1765.


On **Astle**'s death in 1804 the MS. came into possession of the **Marquis of **Buckingham**** at Stowe. About 1849 it was bought by the **Earl of **Ashburnham****, and in 1883 the Ashburnham collection was housed in the Royal Irish Academy Library.


At the foot of Parson's letter **Col. Vallancey** appends some remarks, dated London, 10th March, 1782, and says
‘the astronomical essay appears to be the language of the 13th century.’ He wisely does not venture to support his opinion, or adduce any evidence to prove it. Higher up on the page, on a line with **Parsons**'s signature, **Vallancey** glosses the former's wild statements with a laconic ‘mi-creadamhuil annso. Cathal Uabhallansi’.


Again, at the foot of a letter on the same subject addressed by **Vallancey** to **Astle**, evidently written the same day as the foregoing remarks, since it also is dated 10th March, although the year is not mentioned, there is a memorandum in **Vallancey**'s handwriting as follows: — ‘Dublin, 20th June, 1785. A copy of this work was found in the MSS. closet of St. Patrick's Library with great additions. Another mutilated copy is in possession of **Col. Vallancey**.’


This memorandum is important for the history of the other MSS.


Before passing on to consider them, it may be mentioned that the name **Donncha O'Connaill** is written in ornate Roman capitals at the foot of the last leaf but one. It may be the name of the scribe or former owner of the MS., but is probably not genuine.




---

p.vii


2. A vellum MS. of 11 leaves very well preserved, in double columns, in handwriting different from that of B. II. 1. The diagrams are not so neatly carried out as those in B, but all agree with the descriptions in the text, and are therefore more reliable. The last page is entirely illegible, and only the Latin heading and first line of the Irish translation of the last
chapter are preserved, since the remainder was continued on this last page. The text of Z is remarkably good. The corrupt passages are few, and any textual difficulties of B have been almost invariably solved by help of it.


How the MS. came to Marsh's Library is not clear. The first record of it I can find is in a MS. Catalogue of the Library compiled by **Robert Dougatt, Librarian**, 1719–1730.


The entry— Anonymi Elementa Astronomiae M. 3. 6. 16. is, however, on the left hand side of the page and not in **Dougatt**'s handwriting, and was evidently inserted after 1730. The present Librarian, **Dr. Newport White**,
tells me that the fact of it being lettered "M" would point to its having been in **Archbishop Marsh**'s collection, and that it was probably lost or mislaid when the Catalogue was compiled.


**Col. Vallancey**, in his
 Collectanea, Vol. VI., part II., p. 316, published 1804,
says:— ‘It is evident that treatises on that science (astronomy)
did exist about fifty years since, when **Smith** and **Harris** published the
histories of Cork (1750) and Down (1757). Both mention that they had seen
one in manuscript, and in the Irish character, in the Library of St.
Patrick's Cathedral. A strict search was often made at my request, but no
such book could be found.’


This statement, published in 1804, is certainly strange when taken in
conjunction with the memorandum of 1785 quoted above. We are not then sure,
when or how 


---

p.viii




the MS. reached Marsh's Library, but it probably was contained in Bishop
Marsh's collection, was lost or mislaid between 1719-1730, was certainly
there between 1750-1757, and apparently lost sight of again until 1785, when
it was found with other MSS. in a small closet in the wall. The "great
additions" mentioned above by **Vallancey** are imaginary.


3. A vellum MS. of eight leaves, in very bad condition, comprising
twenty-seven chapters of the text in handwriting different from that of
either of the other MSS. The text, as far as it goes, is also illustrated by
diagrams, some of which are very stained and faint, but appear to be correct
inasmuch as they agree with the descriptions in the text.


About one-half of this fragment is clear, but somewhat more of it can be
read in a very good light, and with the assistance of the other MSS.


Of its history I can find nothing. In the Catalogue of the R.I.A., 23. F.
13. is followed by two blank pages. In **O'Curry**'s Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish History, Dublin, 1861, p. 13 of facsimiles, chapter 19 of the F text:—Si Autem Sol Minoris
esset, etc., is reproduced with the accompanying diagram.


**O'Curry** dates the tract "Circa A.D. 1400," without adducing any reason for his opinion, and describes the fragment as "a beautiful vellum MS. of eight leaves, in the finest style of handwriting". In my opinion, the handwriting of either of the other MSS. is much finer, particularly that of B, but of course **O'Curry** had not seen either of these. The same portion of the text and the diagram were reproduced in Specimens of Irish National MSS. Part III. ii. No. XXIII.


I have not been able to discover how the MS. came into the possession of
the R.I.A., but it may be the "mutilated copy" mentioned as being in **Col. Vallancey**'s possession in the memorandum of 1785.




---

p.ix


The following edition of the text is in the main that of B. Doubtful 
passages have been emended from Z and F; in the latter case of course only 
where collation was possible. Scribal errors have been found to be less 
numerous in Z than in B, but on the whole the two texts differ but slightly. 
In almost all cases of difference F has been found to agree with Z rather 
than with B, but occasionally F and B readings differ from those of Z. In 
the matter of diagrams also Z and F are at one. At the foot of the page the 
variae lectiones of any importance are given, and where 
the text of B has been emended from that of F or Z the B reading is given in 
the collation. I have thought it unnecessary to italicise the commoner 
extensions of compendia except where there was room for doubt. With words 
like speir, cercall, naduir, etc., which 
frequently occur in the text, italics have been used only in the first 
instance where they occur. Talamh has been extended 
throughout in accordance with the consonant declension, which it follows in 
the two instances where it is written in full in the MS. In no case has the 
spelling of the text been interfered with; punctuation marks have been 
added, and capital letters where necessary. I have designated the **Stabius** 
transcript 3. B. 32. as S in the footnotes and glossary.


Possible Date.
--------------


To establish even an approximate date for the text will, I fear, be found
almost impossible. Internal evidence furnishes criteria, at best of a
negative character. The absence of dated texts, and the present isolation of
works in this style, render the task still more difficult. Suffice it to say
that no evidence has been found of linguistic peculiarities not in the
spoken language of, say, the last five hundred years. The peculiarities
associated with middle Irish—the survival 


---

p.x




and confusion of infixed pronouns, the persistence of the neuter gender, the
fluctuating verbal forms and nominal declension—all these have
disappeared. The infixed pronoun (a fair test) does not occur, so that in
short the language of the tract may be set down as a good example of the
treatment of technical matter in the later schools. The forms have settled
down, and are practically those in use amongst good speakers of Irish at the
present day.


An exact determination of the state of a language at any period, at all
times difficult, is doubly so in the case of Irish. Much of the Irish prose
of the modern period, say from 1500 onward, is obviously not the Irish of
the period at which it was written. There is a conscious striving after
words and forms long since obsolete or at least archaic, with a deliberate
avoidance of the language of everyday life, resulting generally in a
pedantic mass of bombast, wholly unnatural, and quite valueless artistically
or philologically.


The subject-matter of our text precludes all that rhetoric and expansion
so popular in translation of narrative matter. Lucidity being the chief
object, the style is simple and straightforward, sometimes even bald in
description; it bears no trace of affectation, becoming almost colloquial in
places, so that one is tempted to put it down as a sample of the spoken Irish of the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries. But any such attempts at dating must be necessarily conjectural. External evidence furnishes us with some information in this respect. The Arabic of **Messahalah** was translated into Latin in the thirteenth century—I cannot at present find a more accurate date. If the reference to spectacles in chapter VII. were in the original of the second Latin text, from which the Irish translator worked, and not an interpolation, it could scarcely have been written before 1325, and certainly the Irish text could not have been produced before 


---

p.xi




then. If then we take 1325 as the superior limit for the Irish translation, it would postulate that it was translated immediately. If we assume the mention of spectacles was not in the original Latin, that date might still remain the superior limit, although their use in Ireland probably began somewhat later than on the Continent and England.


It is, however, unlikely that the Irish translation should follow so quickly on the Latin translation. It would have to get to Ireland, be translated and copied. This process might take place in a few years, and, on the other hand, might take a century to come about. The former is perhaps more likely. **Mr. Close**, in his already much-quoted article, cites the case of the Rosa Medicinae Anglicana, by **John Gaddesden**, who died in 1361. Extracts from that work were translated into Irish in the Yellow Book of Lecan in 1390.


That the text of none of the three MSS. is the actual translation is proved, I think, by the mutilation of the Latin spelling in the chapter headings, which could not have come about if the writer had the actual Latin text before him.


I admit that the foregoing proves nothing definite, but it is probable that such translations were made and used for educational purposes in Ireland during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, that period which **Mrs. J. R. Green** associates with the ‘Second Irish Revival.’


In conclusion, I have to thank **Professor Bergin**, whose pupil I had the honour to be, and at whose suggestion this edition was undertaken, for much valuable advice and assistance, gladly and readily given. To him fell the thankless task of proof-reading, and without his aid the passage of the work through the press would have been difficult.




---

p.2


An Irish Astronomical Tract.
----------------------------

Gloria Deo Principio .i. Gloir da Dia da tossach gan tosach & da crich gan deireadh, dan neach da bi ann riamh roimh gach uili ni, bias da sir deis gach en neich & dan te nach roithenn ciall na resun [na daennachta](G600030/app001.html) da fis [na dha](G600030/app002.html) aichni cade.Et o [nar bail](G600030/app003.html) 
leis beith da sir gan e fein d'foills*iugad* da na dainib, da mhuin [a oibrithe & a ealadhna do na h-eolchaib innus gurub as](G600030/app004.html) na h-oibrithibh da h-athontai an [t-oibriteoir](G600030/app005.html) & gurub as na gnimhartaibh da h-aitheontaidh an tuismigteoir & is uime sin is dingmala do na h-eolcaibh dar foill*sig* a seicreidi gloir do tabairt do tar gach uili ni.Ma sedh tinnscainter annso ceasta cruaige dosgailte na n-arsatan ar oibritib da scrudadh. Et co sunnradhach da cailibh na firmaminnti & da cailib na ceithre dula & da suig*iugad* & da tuismead maille *re* furtacht an tuismightheora aderum-ni, & da resunaib [rofirinneacha & d'armainntib ecintacha](G600030/app006.html) & da congluaistib dobriste [doscailti](G600030/app007.html) .Ocus atait annsa leabhur le celi da fichit caibidil & as i so an ced caibidil dib .i.
1. Da cruth*ugud* & foillsiugad na firmaminte.
2. Da [na](G600030/app008.html) *ceithre* duilibh & da n-inedaib [mar d'ordaidh an tuismigt*eoir* iad](G600030/app009.html) .
3. Da gluasachtaib & do [na](G600030/app010.html) n*aduir*ibh.
4. Da naduirib & do na gluasachtaib.
5. Do cruinne na ceithre n-dula.
6. Dasaenta na ceitre n-dul & [da](G600030/app011.html) naduirib.


---

p.4

9. Da chruinne na tal*man* & d'fis lae & aithci.
10. Da claeclogh na fairrgi & na srothan.
11. D'examlacht na talman & na cnoc.
12. D'examlacht na n-uscid & do gluassacht na talman.
13. Don da chnoc teineadh ata ar lasadh.
14. Da linad & da tragadh an mara.
15. [Da tuili](G600030/app012.html) srotha **Nil** san **Eigeift**.
16. Da cruinne na firmaminti & da gluassacht & da naduirib.
17. D'impodh na firmami*n*te & na greine.
18. Da cl*aech*lod na firmaminte.
19. [Da cerclaibh & da linibh & da poncaibh na firmaminnte.](G600030/app013.html)
20. D'examlacht eirgi & dul fai na greine.
21. D'fis [meid](G600030/app014.html) na greine.
22. Da solus an re noc gabus on grein.
23. Da dorcadus an re.
24. Da t-solus na n-airdrennach.
25. Da dorcadus na greine.
26. D'fochainn an re d'faicsin go bec [& go mór ar a primh](G600030/app015.html) .
27. D'examlacht soluis an re.
28. Da n-uimir cercall an re.
29. Da [da](G600030/app016.html) sp*eir* na greine.
30. Do na h-uili [cercallib](G600030/app017.html) & da n-gl*uas*acht.
31. Da gluasacht na speiri romoire.
32. Da gluasacht speire na comartad.
33. Da claechlod na [naduredh](G600030/app018.html) & na n-aimser.
34. Da n-uimir cercall Shaduirn & na plaineid eile.
35. D'impodh Shaduir*n* & na [pl*ain*ed](G600030/app019.html) ele tar a n-ais.
36. Da speir na n-airdrinnach.
37. Da n-uimhir milteadh a timceall na talman.
38. Da claechlodh na [n-airdreannach](G600030/app020.html) a n-examlacht na crich.


---

p.6

41. Do na h-ocht crichaib soaitreabta [an](G600030/app021.html) talman.
42. Don da inadh a fuil an bliagain uile na h-enla & na [h-enaithci](G600030/app022.html) .
43. Do na gaethaibh & da naduirib.
44. Don toirnidh & do na nellaibh & dan feartain [& don teinntigh](G600030/app023.html) .
45. Do na *plainedaib*.

Firmamentum est etcetera.
-------------------------


.i. Ata an firmamint co cruinn ar na tuismead & deradh aici, [ca sir](G600030/app024.html) follamnug*ad* [ag a tuismigteoir fein](G600030/app025.html) . Ocus atait airdreannaid [a](G600030/app026.html) secht speir na firmaminnti mar tairngibh [daingne](G600030/app027.html) a clar gan gluasacht dilis acu acht gluasacht na cercaille an a fuilid. Ocus as uime sin nach [faicear](G600030/app028.html) [a*g* gluasacht tar a ceili iat na a n-eagaidh a ceile ach en ordugad siraigh](G600030/app029.html) suthain co comfogus da ceili & comfada o ceili ag a chonnmail acu caithe. Da derbad co fuil an follamhnugad sin ag a connmail ag tuismighteoir an
domhain, & co m-bia co brat ar a oibrechaibh fein, an [cursa](G600030/app030.html) da orduigh se doibh a tus an domuin, atait gan meallad ca connmail sin co neimheasbadhach.


Da derbadh sin bidh fis gach neich nadur*tha* ag na h-eolchaibh sul tigid siad ann, oir ata a fis acu co neimheasbatach sibhal na n-airdrinnach & na plained gacha bl*iadna* & gacha mis & gacha sechtmaine & an gach la & in gach momint. Et 'na egmais bid fis [na n-aimsir](G600030/app031.html) fein acu sul [tigid siad](G600030/app032.html) ann .i. fis t-samraigh & fogmuir & geimrid & earraidh & fis gach neich is nadurtha da teacht inntu sin; ocus as ardomaint deimhin sin da derbadh co fuil an te da tuismidh an domhan fos 'ga follamnugad, oir muna beith, da cl*ech*l*eo*fadais na neiche adubrumar 


---

p.8




costrasta an t-oibriugad d'innsemar do beith acu. Et as mar sin da beidis na h-airdrinnaigh & na plaineid uair budh luaithi uair budh maille iat na ceili & uair ele na comhnaighi gan en cor do chur dibh. Et as ar in nos cedna da ticfadais na h-aimsera a n-inadh a ceile & da bedis laeite nadurtha budh sia na ceili ann. Agus da rer sin da beidis tortha na talman [uair and](G600030/app033.html) ar techt & uair ele gan en raed da techt dibh. Et as mar sin da beith gach uile ni idir nemh & talmain buaidhertha [measgaithi](G600030/app034.html) gan iul ag feall*samain* na ag eolach cad aderadh ru. Et da ticfadh as sin aris co [scrisfaide](G600030/app035.html) na h-ealadhna saera [da rinneadh](G600030/app036.html) , & ar sibal & ar comnaidhi ar n-uimhir & ar suig*iugad* & ar ordugad oibr*ig*tedh De.


Ma sedh o dachiamaid co fuilid na h-ealadhna saera ann & co fuil gach uile ni ele co nembuaigertha nemmeascaithi da rer en ordaithi ac tiacht co deimhin an a n-aimseraibh fein, as as so tuicter [co fuil](G600030/app037.html) an te do crutaidh an doman fos aca ordugad [& ag a follamnug*ad*](G600030/app038.html) .


[*Do* na cethri duilibh & da n-inadaibh & mar da orduig an tuismiteoir iat.](G600030/app039.html) 
### Terre est in medio mundi etcetera


.i. [ata an talam](G600030/app040.html) na ponc cruind a cert medon an domain [mar](G600030/app041.html) m*od* liatroide cruinne, gan t-sustaint fai, ca congmail, & ata an t-uisci da rer naduir [da gach aen leithe](G600030/app042.html) de na timceall & gideadh da tuismaidh an tuismiteoir an [cuid tuas](G600030/app043.html) don talmain mar inadh aitreabtha do na dainibh & da na h-ainminntib [nar fed](G600030/app044.html) beith beo fa usci. Et ata an t-aer 'na timchill ar aen. Et ata an tene 'na dimcheall [a](G600030/app045.html) triur. Et ata an firmamint gach aen taebha a timcill an ceathrair sin.


Et as i so tuarascbail na ceithre n-dul sin .i. 


---

p.10




tuarasgabhail na teineadh .i. corp te tirim loisgnech edrom silteach sogluasta fa fuil an t-aer. Tuarascbail an aeir .i. corp te fl*iuch* siltec sogluasta, trom [an aithfeghadh na teinedh](G600030/app046.html) & etrom a n-aithfeghadh an uisci. Tuarascbail an uisci .i. corp f*uar* fl*iuch* siltec sogluasta, trom ac fecain an aeir & edrom [ac fechain](G600030/app047.html) na talman, [fa fuil an talamh](G600030/app048.html) . Tuarascbail na talman .i. corp f*uar*, t*irim*, trom dogluaiste [ata](G600030/app049.html) fon domun uili & is mar sin as tusca an talamh na'n t-uisci [& an t-uisce na'n t-aer](G600030/app050.html) & an t-aer na'n teine [& in teine](G600030/app051.html) na'n firmamint oir as i an firmamint as imill*ige* acu mar foill*sig*es an fidair so tis.


![to face p. 10](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face10.gif)


[philosophi](G600030/app052.html) Dicunt etcetera.
----------------


Aderaid na feallsamain co fuilit tri gluasachta ann .i. gluasacht o meadhon & gluasacht cu meadhon & gluasacht a timcill medhoin.


Is e is gluasacht o medhon ann .i. an gluasacht teit o talmain amach co cotrom d'innsaighe gach uile rainn don cercaill timcill. Is e as gluasacht cu medhon ann an gluasacht teit sis on cercaill [timcill co talmain](G600030/app053.html) . Is e as gluasacht a timcill mhedhoin ann .i. an gluasacht noch gluaises da rer na cercaille timcill & is o na primhgluasachtaibh sin genter gach uili gluasacht ele da fuil is an domhan & is dib sin gluasacht na ceithre dula, oir gluaisidh cuid aca o meadhon & cuit co meadhon & ni
gluaisind en raed co nadurtha a timcill medoin acht an firmaminnt na rann da rannaibh. An da duil gluaises cu medhon .i. talman & uisci, as luaithi an gluasacht co medhon talmain na an uisci. Don da duil gluaisis o medhon .i. aer & teine is luaithe gluaises in teine o medhon na'n t-aer. Et is mar sin atait na duili gluaises go medhon trom & na duili gluaises o medhon etrom. Et [tuictear mar congl*uais*](G600030/app054.html)


---

p.12


[as na neicib sin](G600030/app055.html) gurab e an talam duil as [troma](G600030/app056.html) acu & gurab i an teine duil as roetroma aca. Et ge ta an t-uisci & an t-aer
[mesardha](G600030/app057.html) atorra [aga](G600030/app058.html) comortus re ceili & ris na duilib ele, dagabar truma & etruma innta oir ge trom an t-uisci ag a [comoradh](G600030/app059.html) re h-aer as h-edrom e 'ga [comoradh](G600030/app060.html) re talmain & is mar sin gidh etrom an t-aer ag a comoradh re h-uisci as trom e ca comoradh re teine.


D'foill*siugad* [an adbair](G600030/app061.html) so nis mo dagen fidair annso this scailfis amach brig na raiteadh so. Dagen ar dus fidair na talman *& is i so i* & [scribfad](G600030/app062.html) A 'na meadhon & curfead B [litir](G600030/app063.html) 'na mullach & daden 'na [dedaidh](G600030/app064.html) sin cercall na firmaminti a dimcill na talman & [cuirfed](G600030/app065.html) C 'na oirrcher & D 'na mullach & E 'na h-iartar & F 'na h-ichtar [&](G600030/app066.html) ar cuma na fidrach atait da corp do na corpaid [duilidhi](G600030/app067.html) noch gluaises o medon ann na cercaille timcill .i. o A go B & is iat sin tine & aer. Et atait an da corp ele gluaises on cercaill timcill go medhon .i. o B go h-A & is iat sin talam & uisci. An treas primgluasacht ata ann .i. gluasacht do rer [an cercaill](G600030/app068.html) timcill & is e sin gluasacht na firmaminnti & is aml*aid* gl*uais*es o C go D & o D go E & o E go F & o F go C & is [leor](G600030/app069.html) sin do na h-eolcaib. ![to face p. 12](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face12.gif)


[Frigheditas](G600030/app070.html) Calor et etcetera
-----------------


i. tes f*uacht* fl*iche* & t*irime* as iat sin as ceithre primcaile do na ceithre duilibh & atait 'na n-aicidib doscailte uatha &
atait da cail gnimhacha dib so .i. [t*es* & f*uacht*](G600030/app071.html) . Agus as uime aderur caile gnimaca ru oir an tan glacmaid iat foills*igid* siat duinn an uair sin gan fuireach annsa momint a n-glactar iad a m-brig fein; oir an tan glacmaid an tene foills*igid* an uair sin dun brig a [teasi*gacht*a](G600030/app072.html) & as mar sin an trat glacmaid an 


---

p.14




cuisne reoigh foills*igid* se duinn an uair sin gan fuirec sa mo*m*int cedna brig a [fuar*dhachta*](G600030/app073.html) . Et as i cuis fa mothaigmaid-ni na neice ainmesarda sin naduir mesarda da beth againn fein.


Et atait in da cail ele dib sin fuilngtec & is uime aderar caili fuilngtaca ru ar[1](javascript:footNote('G600030/note001.html')) son gan cumhachta d'foills*iugad* an uair sin 'ga n-glacadh; oir an trath glaccamaid raed [2](javascript:footNote('G600030/note002.html')) fliuch no raed tirim ni mhotaigmid a fl*iche* na a [tirm*ig*acht](G600030/app074.html) co h-obann mar mhothaighmid teas na teineadh no [fuar*dhacht*](G600030/app075.html) an c*us*ne. As i sin an cuis fa n-ab*artar* blod do na cailib sin do *beth*[3](javascript:footNote('G600030/note003.html')) gnimhach & blod *ele do beth* fuilngtec. Et ata gach uile corp o speir na teinedh anuas cumaisce astu so & atait siat fein neamhcumusca a n-egmais co n-ab*artar* a [mbeth](G600030/app076.html) cumasca as a cailib fein mar ata an teine [te](G600030/app077.html) tirim cumusca as an da cail sin oir as iat an da cail sin tigernaighes is an teine. Et as a t*irime* & a fl*iche* cumuisgter an t-aer oir as iat sin tigernaighes ann. Et as mar sin ata tigernas an da duil ele timcill a caili fein. Et ge tait na ceithre duili so cumasca as [na](G600030/app078.html) primcailib aderar *a m-beth* neamchumasca [ru](G600030/app079.html) a n-aithfeghadh na corp n-duilita cumuscter asta fein. Et as mar sin atait an ceithre so cumasca & neamcumasca le ceili. Neamhcumasca ag fecain [gach neich](G600030/app080.html) cumaister asta fein. Cumasca ac fecain na primhcailedh ata da ririb. Et mar sin as coir gluasacht nemcumusca da beth ag an corp neamcumusca & gluasacht cumasca [da beth](G600030/app081.html) ag an corp cumusca.


Et is follus gac uili corp a tigernaighinn [teasi*gacht*](G600030/app082.html) as o medhon suas gluaises. Et gach uili corp a tigernaiginn [fuar*dhacht*](G600030/app083.html) as d'innsaighidh medhon gluaises. Et as e an tes oibriges edromacht is na 


---

p.16




corpaib nadurtha. Et as i an fuar*dhacht* oibriges tromdact & is i an tirimaigeacht oibriges luas cumscaithi d'innsaidhe an inaidh nadurtha is na corpaibh edroma. Et mar sin as i an fl*iche* [oibriges](G600030/app084.html) maille cumscaithi is na corpaibh an a m-bi. Et as na raitibh sin timsaigter gorab naduir da gac [uili](G600030/app085.html) duil dib sin comnaighe do denamh a na n-inadaib nadurtha fein a na fuil cric a n-gluasachta [fein](G600030/app086.html) , oir da curtai duil aca sin da h-ainndeoin as a h-inadh nadurtha fein [amach](G600030/app087.html) da tarrongadh a n-duchas aris d'innsaighe [an inaidh cedne](G600030/app088.html) .


Terra est in medio
etcetera
---------------------------


.i. As amlaidh ata an talam a cert medhon na firmaminti a fidhair [dul](G600030/app089.html) sis na corp trom mar sheantrom .i. ponc medhonach a raed crinn. Et mar adubramar [as e](G600030/app090.html) inadh nadurtha an usci beit a timceall na talman & da [fadadh](G600030/app091.html) slighe gan oilbeim on talmain, o ta fein na corp trom siltec siblach ni anfadh co [roitfedh](G600030/app092.html) seantrom na talman & d'anfad annsin oir as e sin, mar adubrumar, inadh deiginach sibail na corp trom. [Et atait ranna](G600030/app093.html) an usci ac [dinge](G600030/app094.html) a ceili da dul tar a ceili d'iarraidh seanntroim an domain mar inadh nadurtha doib fein da ligeadh [daingne na talman doib](G600030/app095.html) . As egin, o ta an talam comcruinn daingean a gabail risin uisci gan a dul cum an t-seantruim, co fuil an t-uisci comcruinn a dimceall na talman & as mar sin ata fidair [cruinn](G600030/app096.html) ag an da duil ele gluaises suas on t-seantrom co [ruic](G600030/app097.html) an cercaill timcill.


Oir ata an tene ar son a h-edruime ac tarraing suas no co n-gabann [cercall](G600030/app098.html) daingean dotruailligte an re ria & o nach fadhann slidhi tairis do coimed & da comhdaigh hi fein fo ascaill cruinn [na cercaille](G600030/app099.html) sin & as uime sin as egin di fein beith cruinn mar ata cercall 


---

p.18




an re cumdaighes astig innte fein hí. Et as i an cercall sin as re deridh gluasta na corp n-edrom. Et as e ni doni an t-aer cruinn, druim an uisci cruinn sa glotain ichtaraidh suas aige & an cuit uachtarach de fein sa glotain ichtaraidh don tene; & o ta an tene & an t-uisci comcruinn mar da derbamar as egin dan aer ata ar na cumdach etorra beth cruinn da rer a fidrach sin. Et as amlaid ata an suigh*iugad* sin na n-dul andluite sin a n-glotain a ceili [nac](G600030/app100.html) feadann ni ele beth aturra [&](G600030/app101.html) is mar sin nach fedann inad folamh beth sa domhan uili.


[Notum est unum quodque quatuor elementorum etcetera](G600030/app102.html) .
-


As follus gach duil do na ceithre duilib [na naduiribh & na n-inadaibh & na n-gluasachtaibh](G600030/app103.html) da beith contrara da ceili, oir idir gach ni da n-gluaisinn o medhon is i an 
tene as roluaithi acu & mar sin idir gach ni da n-gluaisinn co medhon as e an talam as roluaithi acu, & is mar sin ata an talam & an teine contrara da ceili [ar son caili teas*igheacht*a na teinedh](G600030/app104.html) ac oibr*iugad* edromachta innte & ar son caili [fuar*dhacht**a*](G600030/app105.html) na talman ag oibriugad truimidheachta innte. [Et tuig an tan aderar talam & teine no da duil ele da beith contrarda da ceili gorab](G600030/app106.html) iat caili na n-dul tuicter [an tan sin](G600030/app107.html) [da beit contrartha da ceili](G600030/app108.html) & nach iat a sustainnte. Oir adeir an feallsam in libro predicamentorum, substainte nicel est contrarium, oir ni fuil en ni contrarda ag [an](G600030/app109.html) t-substaint. Oir is uime sin an trath aderar an tene da beth t*e* tir*im* & an talam f*uar* t*irim* [ata t*es* & f*uacht* in da duil sin contrara da ceile & atait aentaghach da ceile oir is i in tirm*ig*acht](G600030/app110.html) oibrighes luas indtu.




---

p.20


Et is mar sin ata an t-aer & an t-uisci co h-aentadach & co h-asaentadhach da ceili *ina cailib gnimhacha* & atait co h-aentadhach is na cailibh fuilngteca .i. an fl*iche* noch oibrighes [a](G600030/app111.html) moille innta ar aen. Et atait asaentadach da ceili is
na cailib gnim*aca* .i. a teas*igacht* oib*rig*es edromacht is in aer & a fuar*dhacht* oibr*ig*es [tromidacht](G600030/app112.html) is [in usci](G600030/app113.html) . Et as mar sin ata an tene & an t-uisci co h-asaentadach da ceili a na cailib gnimhacha & fuilngteca, oir as amlaid ata an tene te t*irim* luath edrum & is amlaid ata an t-uisci f*uar* fl*iuch* mall trom. Et as follus fa deoigh na neice ac a fuil gluasacht direach co n-anait na inadaib nadurtha fein acht muna curtar as da n-ainneoin iat. Et an trat cl*aech*l*i*gter duil dib [an](G600030/app114.html) duil ele tri nert na dula sin no an trat curter duil acu da h-ainneoin as a h-inadh nadurtha fein, mar as tusca dagib cuis no becan cunganta le no gan gab*ail* re doni caisimpodh casluath obann d'innsaige a [naduir & a inaid ducusa fein](G600030/app115.html) .


Et as follus aris gurab te gach uili ni gluaises o medhon & gorab fuar gach uili ni gluaiseas co medhon; et gorab tirim gan comortas ris gach ni luataiges an gluasacht & gurab fl*iuch* gan comortas gach ni mallaighes an [gluasacht](G600030/app116.html) . Et as mar sin da thuismid & d'ordaigh an tusmigteoir beannaithi an dom*an* na ceithre duilibh.


[Argumentum](G600030/app117.html)  ad rotunditatem terrae etcetera.
---------------------------------


As [arrdamhaint](G600030/app118.html) deimin domeallta do dearbad cruinne na talman na srotha da beit [co](G600030/app119.html) siblach silteach ar fud [aithchi](G600030/app120.html) na talman. Oir da m-beith an talamh na clar comtrom gan atmaireacht ann, mar adubradar na h-aineolaidh, co [n-ingnad](G600030/app121.html) an ferthainn *ani* thig as na nelaib o tigid na 


---

p.22




srotha enloch mor [fairgi comnaidhe](G600030/app122.html) ar agaid na talman & ni rithfedh o inadh co h-inadh mar dani anis. Ma sedh o [ritid](G600030/app123.html) & nach anann a n-en inadh, tuicter co deimhin co fuil cruinne & atmairecht is in talmain. [Arrdomaint](G600030/app124.html) ele da derbadh a*n* [neith](G600030/app125.html) cedna, da [n-gluaistea](G600030/app126.html) o medhon an domain co fairrgi budh tuaigh da folls*eocaidi* doit annsin [retlanna](G600030/app127.html) nach facaid tu riamh a medhon an domhain & da [foileoc*aidi*](G600030/app128.html) ort blodh do na retlannaibh theas daconncadais a medhon an domuin. Mar sin da [n-ernta](G600030/app129.html) an sibhal cedna budh dheas da foills*eocaidi* duit retlanna nach facais don taeb tuaidh [na](G600030/app130.html) a medhon an domhuin & do [foileoch*aidi*](G600030/app131.html) ort na retlanna doconncadhais is na h-inadaibh sin.


Ma sedh is deimin gorab i atmhaireacht na talman ag eirghe tar [teis](G600030/app132.html) annsa t-sibal a m-bi foill*siges* duit na retlanna bis romat & [ceilis](G600030/app133.html) ort na ret*lanna* bhis tar teis.


Tuilledh ar in adbar cedna .i. gach uile inad [a m-bi](G600030/app134.html) tu don talmain daci tu cuid egin dan firmamint nach faicaid tu a n-en inad ele & derbtar as sin co fuil an [boga](G600030/app135.html) ata a timcill na talman comhcruinn & go fuil an talam mar sin ar a lar. Et adeirm*aid* fos cum an adhbuir cedna co foill*sigenn* an grian ar gach sibal da n-denann a timcill na talman an leath bis ar a comhair don talmain co direach & gorab e an solus sin bis idir an grein [&](G600030/app136.html) talmain as la ann co brach & co m-bi an leth ele don talmain dorca da sir o sgaili na talman & is e an scaili dorcha sin as [aithci](G600030/app137.html) ann co brac & is mar sin gibe siubhal do ni an [grian](G600030/app138.html) a timcill na talman leanaidh an la hi & teitidh an [aithi](G600030/app139.html) roimpe don taib ele don talmain.


Et mar sin na daine as cinn a n-imtigheann grian dacid sin grian & la & an buidin bis don leth ele don 


---

p.24




talmain dacid siat retlanna & aithci & mar sin ni fedtar na neithi sin d'faicsin ar en slighi co brach .i. [grian & retlanna aithci & la](G600030/app140.html) , oir an trath bis la againne ar 
[uachtar](G600030/app141.html) talman [bigh aitci](G600030/app142.html) fo talmain & is mar sin re na impodh. [Grinnigh co maith an focal so adubart .i.](G600030/app143.html) fo talmain. Oir gach uili ni ata [tis](G600030/app144.html) fo talmain as e an talam e no rann da rannaibh. Et gach uili ni ata gac aen taeb don talmain [on talmain](G600030/app145.html) amach as tuas ata. Et as mar sin ata an tal*am* ['na enur](G600030/app146.html) guna rannaib this & gac en ni ele *do rinne* d'oib*rigt*hib De gibe taeb don talmain a m-bid is tuas atait. Et as mar sin [gibe inad don talmain](G600030/app147.html) ar a m-bid daine 'na seasamh as *s*uas bid a cinn & sis bid a cossa. Et gibe neach ader*adh* an talam da beith 'na clar comtrom gan atmairecht & an grian d'eirgi da taib de & a dul fai don taib eli adeirmid-ni nach fedtar sin da beit 'na firinne & nac [hedir](G600030/app148.html) resun na [arrdomaint](G600030/app149.html) d'fagbail da derbad sin. Oir da madh fir an baramail [so](G600030/app150.html) [da cithfi](G600030/app151.html) co m-bedh [an](G600030/app152.html) grian bec ag erghi & gach dul suas da [denadh](G600030/app153.html) & gach foicsi duinn da tuicfadh [dacitfi](G600030/app154.html) duinn co mad moidi hi & as follus da ga*c* eolac ar doman nach fuil sin ['na firinne](G600030/app155.html) oir daciamaid corub comtrom a meid a n-oirrcer & a n-iartar & a mullach an domuin. Et as sin derbtar an talam & cursa na greine a [timceall](G600030/app156.html) na talman da bet comcruinn & da cur sin a ceill ni bhus [follse](G600030/app157.html) dagen fidhair [iomitrici](G600030/app158.html) annso tis & dagen ar [dus](G600030/app159.html) cuma cruinn cercaille na talman & [scribhfad](G600030/app160.html) a medhon an [a sentrom](G600030/app161.html) E & [scribfaid](G600030/app162.html) me 'na timcill sin cercall as mo na sin am*ail* cercall na greine & cuirfead ['na h-iartar](G600030/app163.html) A & 'na mullach 


---

p.26




B & 'na [oirrcer](G600030/app164.html) [4](javascript:footNote('G600030/note004.html')) C & [scribfad](G600030/app165.html) cercall bec a [cosmul*us*](G600030/app166.html) cercailli cuirp na greine fare gac litir aca sin & tarrongad tar eisi sin tri line o t-sentrom na talman co cercaill timcill na greine. Line acu sin co h-A, an dara line co B, an treas line co C. Et as follus da gach neach [smuainteocas](G600030/app167.html) iat co fuilit na tri line sin comtrom comfada re ceili.


![to face p. 26](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face26.gif)


Ma sedh as comfada comtrom o gach aen an talamh gibe inad [a m-bia](G600030/app168.html) an grian ag eirgi & a dul fai & a mullach a cercaille & is mar sin as follus co fuil an talamh & cercall na greine a dimceall na talman comtrom leth ar leth. Et gibe neach aderad mar arrdamhaint a na ag*aid* so [co faicter](G600030/app169.html) an grian ag erghi & ac dul fai co follus nis romho na mar doci a mullach a medhon lai & gurub as sin tuicter gorab faidi [uainn](G600030/app170.html) i a medhon lae na is na h-airdib ele sin & gorab [e](G600030/app171.html) sin derbas co fuil an talam na clar comtrom gan atmeracht [da bet ann](G600030/app172.html) , adermid co h-imcub*aid* da tabairt solaidi don [arrdamaint](G600030/app173.html) sin co tecmann sin co minic & nach tecmann da sir & an trath teagmas as i so an cuis fo tegmann. An grian ag ergi & a dul fai, togaid si [suas na fl*iuc*adain & an fertain & eirgid dethaighi](G600030/app174.html) dorca fl*iuc*a co h-imard adrinn & hi fein, & annsin an trath fecamaid ar in n-grein [lethnaig*id* & remhr*ig*i*d* an smuit sin daciter sp*eir*](G600030/app175.html) an radairc intu fein & mar sin da rer corpurdachta & tal*man*achta na smuiti sin, daciter an grian trit an smuit sin nis mo na mar [dachitfidi](G600030/app176.html) [í](G600030/app177.html) muna beit an smuit [sin](G600030/app178.html) ann. Et an trath gluaises an la & bis an grian a mullach na firma*min*ti gan [smuit](G600030/app179.html) adrainn & hi as annsin [da citer](G600030/app180.html) hi na med coir fein.




---

p.28


Et as follus a eisimlair sin is in duine [lomnocht](G600030/app181.html) fo uisci, oir dar leis an radarc as mo fa uisci e na don taib amuith d'uisci. Gidheadh ni fuil da derbad annsin acht an t-uisci fl*iuch* tiugh ac [lethnug*adh*](G600030/app182.html) & ac ramrug*adh* an radairc ann & a bacail de dul co seim na naduir fein d'innsaidhi an duine. Et as i an cuis cedna dabeir corob mo & gurab [roime](G600030/app183.html) daciter ni tri gloine na don taeb amuit di. Et as uime sin na seandaine o m-bi a radarc a dul nac fetaid litreacha caela da legad gabaid spechlai glaine cucu [da reamrugad](G600030/app184.html) na litrech ledhaid & as i an cuis cedna dabeir ar in grein a faicsin [mocrac](G600030/app185.html) & um tratnona nis mo na [a](G600030/app186.html) medon lae mar adubrumar.


Et gibe aineolach aderad ani cedna .i. an talam da beth 'na cl*ar* comtrom & an grian a na cercaill cruinn a timcill na talman & co faicfidis daine an domhain co coitceann hi isin en uair fa n-ereochadh a n-en inadh amhain aderamais-ne go mad breg sin da [n-abartaidh](G600030/app187.html) . Agus da cur so a ceill smuaintidh da cathair at' inntinn fein .i. catair acu a n-oirrcer an domhain & cathair ele a n-iartar an domain & smuaintidh da m-beith an talam 'na clar comtrom co nematmar mar adeir an baramhail so costrasta co faicfidis lucht catrac oirrcir an domain an grian a fogus doib fein ag erghi a meid moir & tar eis a cercaille da sibal co faicid i a dul fai tiar a med [o](G600030/app188.html) [rolugha](G600030/app189.html) na sin. Et as mar sin re h-impodh:—lucht catrach iartair an domhain dacitfidis an grian ag ergi dhi a meid big ar son [a fad](G600030/app190.html) uata & ac dul fai dhi laim riu fein ar son a foicsi doib a meid bud romho na sin. Et as mar sin [dacitfidhi](G600030/app191.html) da lucht na catrach oirrceraighi co madh girra leat tosaid an lae na a leth deighinach. Et ar an innus cedna [dacitfidhi](G600030/app192.html) da lucht na catrac iartaraighe co madh girri leth deirigh 


---

p.30




an lae na leth tosaigh. Et ata [a](G600030/app193.html) deimhin againne & ac na h-eolcaibh co neamcunntabartach gorab comfada an la [gaca leiti don ponc inmedonac](G600030/app194.html) an lae [ag an](G600030/app195.html) da catair sin & in gach inadh ele is in domhuin & gorab e secran & easbaigh eagna tuc an baram*ail* sin da tob*air*t. [Et as an](G600030/app196.html) comtromacht sin rainn tosaig & rainn [derigh](G600030/app197.html) an lae derbtar co follus an grian da beit ac sibal a cercaill cruinn a timcill na talman cruinne.


Et d'foills*iugad* an adh*bhair* so [nis mho](G600030/app198.html) & da scris na baramhla sin dagen fidhair [iomitre](G600030/app199.html) annso this. Et tarrongad ar dus line direc re n-abartar aig*id* na talman & tarrongad [os a cinn sin](G600030/app200.html) cercall re [n-aibeoir sligthi cursa](G600030/app201.html) na greine & dagen fidhair cathrach a cinn oirrcerach an line & [scribfad](G600030/app202.html) A [litir](G600030/app203.html) as a cinn & [da den](G600030/app204.html) sa cinn iartarach don line [cedna](G600030/app205.html) fidair catrac [ele](G600030/app206.html) & [scribochad](G600030/app207.html) B os a cinn & scribocad C a ponc eirgi na greine & D a ponc a dula fai & E a medon lae na catrach oirrceraidhi & F a medhon lae na catrach iartaraighi di. Ma sedh an trath eirges grian a ponc C & teit si co h-E & teit ced leth lae na catrach oirrceraighi [tort](G600030/app208.html) & [bid](G600030/app209.html) an da*ra* leth o E co D gan tiacht & aris an trath eirghes grian a ponc C & teit si co F teit ced leth lae na catrac iartaraighe [torrsa](G600030/app210.html) & bid an [dara](G600030/app211.html) leath o F co D gan tiacht; da rer sin beith leth bus rofuidi na ceili ag la gac catrach aca sin oir is faidi co mor o E co D, noch is cuit deiginach da lo na catrach oirrcearaidhi, na o C co E, noch is cuit tosanach da lo na catrac cedna. Et aris as faidi da mhoran o C co F noc as cuit tosanach da la na catrach iartaraidh na o F co D, noch as cuit deiginach don [la](G600030/app212.html) cedna & is follus do 


---

p.32




gach neach is in doman [lenab ail](G600030/app213.html) a fecain co grinn nach fuil si 'na firinne. Ma sedh as seacranach na raiti sin as a tic sin .i. co fuil an talam 'na clar comtrom, gan atmaireacht ann, & is uime sin [adearar](G600030/app214.html) ar lorg na firinne co fuil an talam [atmar comcruinn](G600030/app215.html) .


![to face p. 30](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face30.gif)


Et da derbadh [gorab](G600030/app216.html) fir sin, ni h-innann inad a teit [an](G600030/app217.html) grian fai da dha cathraigh san doman, oir mar cl*aech*l*ig*es tu inad, cl*aech*l*igidh* tu dul fai na greine duit. Da derbadh sin da m-beitea a cathair [**Iaruscalem**](G600030/app218.html) , da racad an grian fai duit ac [an](G600030/app219.html) **Roimh** & da m-bethea annsin da rachadh [si](G600030/app220.html) fai duit a n-iarthar na **Frainnce** & ar m-beth annsin duit da racad [si](G600030/app221.html) fai a n-iarthar na **Spainne**. Et tar eisi sin d'faileochadh inad egin don fairrgi thiar ort & [da coinneomhadh](G600030/app222.html) an fairrgi tu & an grian da leanmhain, da cl*aech*leofad si dul fai gach n-en la da m-beththea ca leanmain no co n-*d*eachad si fa deridh duit fai is in inadh [a facaid tu](G600030/app223.html) ag erghi hi an trat do bi tu a cathair **Iarusalem**.


Et as dearb nac fuil [d'examlacht](G600030/app224.html) [sa dul](G600030/app225.html) fai na greine acht atmaracht na talman a sirteacht adrainn & i, oir da [m-beth](G600030/app226.html) an talam 'na cl*ar* comhtrom amail adubairt an baramail o cianaib, ni beth acht en inad a n-ereochadh *an* grian da dhainib an domain & en inad ele a racadh fai. Ma sedh o ta imad na n-inad ann a n-erginn si & a teit si fai, as egin co fuil an tal*am* comcruinn & na fuil se 'na clar comtrom.


Ma sedh an siraidhi bunaid d'orduig [mar sin e](G600030/app227.html) , go roib se bennaithi [tre bithu](G600030/app228.html) .




---

p.34


Maria et flumina diuersa loca matant etcetera.
----------------------------------------------


[An fairrgi](G600030/app229.html) .i. cl*aech*l*igi*d an fairrgi & na srotanna i moran d'inadaib & ni follus sin co tic tar eis morain da cedaib bl*iadan*. Agus as amlaid so tic an cl*aech*lod sin .i. mar brisid na h-uisceadha na cnuic, tuitidh talam na cnoc a n-ichtar na n-uiscid & linaid inad an uisci, & o facaid a n-inadh fein co h-ainneonach is egin doib dul a [n-inadh eli](G600030/app230.html) a na fadaid [slige](G600030/app231.html) . Et trit an cuis sin na catraca & na bailti & na crica [a m-bi](G600030/app232.html) aitrebh na n-dainedh a n-gleanntaib & a n-inedaib isle a fogas na fairrgi, tic an fairrgi [torrsa](G600030/app233.html) & [baidhidh si iat](G600030/app234.html) . Et as i an fairrgi tic as na nelaib as adhbur do so, oir an trat tites, [bigh a sir rith](G600030/app235.html) ar fud na talman ac tocailt na talman & gach ni as [sooscailte](G600030/app236.html) & is laigi dageibh is in talmain, [berid se](G600030/app237.html) o inad co h-inadh isna srotaib & [fuadaig*idh*](G600030/app238.html) nert na srotann na nethi cedna [sa](G600030/app239.html) fairrgi & lint*ar* dib sin ichtar na fairrgi & is [uime](G600030/app240.html) as egin dan fairrigi an t-inad sin d'fagbail & dul a n-inadh eli. Agus brisid cnuic an inadh cum a [teid](G600030/app241.html) & linaid na gleannta & mar sin cl*aech*l*ig*ter inad aitreabtha & [sealbta](G600030/app242.html) na n-dainedh .i. na catracha & na crica & na cnuic & na gleannta.


Oir as ni nadurtha don uisci, o ta se siltec, gan beth da sir a n-en inadh ach a dul o inadh co h-inadh. Agus 'na dedhaig sin, an talam as laigi, [b*er*id](G600030/app243.html) na srotha leo san fairrgi [e](G600030/app244.html) 
& tre beth co rofada do ann, calcaid*id* se ann & cruadhaig*id* & dani [cloch de](G600030/app245.html) & le sirbual*adh* na tonn fai & tairis da sir, [snoighter](G600030/app246.html) & [minaiter](G600030/app247.html) na clocha & curt*er* fidracha egsamla orra, oir daniter [blodha](G600030/app248.html) acu crinn & bl*odha* letan & bl*odha* fada & bl*odha* ger.




---

p.36


Et as mar sin, an gaineamh & na clocha etroma, b*er*id na srotha leo sa fairrgi & crinnig*id* [cum a ceile o imbual*adh* na tonn amuith](G600030/app249.html) & tar eis morain da cedaib bl*iadan*, fasaidh se & eirgidh se suas os a*n* [fairrgi](G600030/app250.html) & doni cnuic de & sleibti & cuiridh an fairrgi ni [de](G600030/app251.html) d'innsaidhi na crich ele & [as e as adbur as a m-bainter](G600030/app252.html) na catraca & na crica. Et da derbad sin gurab fir [e](G600030/app253.html) , daciter [a](G600030/app254.html) moran d'inadaib dachuaidh fon [fairgi](G600030/app255.html) tigi cloch & caislein & tempaill & cloca snaighthi & clair & a lan da comartaib nemcunntab*ar*tacha ar i n-deimniter aitreb daine da beit [uair egin](G600030/app256.html) is na h-inadaib sin.


Ni ele da derbadh an raeda cedna, dagebtar [co follus](G600030/app257.html) a mullach na cnoc & na sleibtead cassain & sligteca na fairrgi noch is cosmail risna h-imaraib & risna [eitrib](G600030/app258.html) beca cama daciter [a](G600030/app259.html) ladh na mara deis na fairrgi da dul amach & leis sin dagab*tar* a lan da [sligeanaib](G600030/app260.html) & da miniasgaib [mara](G600030/app261.html) ar calcad*adh* & ar cruadhug*ad* & ar n-denum cloch dib isna h-inadaib cedna. Et ar an nos cedna doni an fertain slebti & gleannta an dom*ain*, oir an trat rithes [an fertain a n-inad a fadhann an talam lag, toclaidh e & doni eitrighi ann & tuitid bruach an eitrighe gaca leiti, idir gaineam & talmain is in eitridhi](G600030/app262.html) leis i*n* uisci & [b*er*id](G600030/app263.html) an t-uisci sin leis d'innsaighe na srothann & b*er*id na srotha sa fairrgi & le h-imad fertana na h-aimsiri rofada ac sirtuitem is na h-eitrib sin & [ac sirbreith na talman & an gainim](G600030/app264.html) leo doni gleannta mara do na h-eitrib sin & fa deoid factar an talam na cnocaib & na sleibtib mora atarra & is mar sin d'ordaigh tuismiteoir beannaiti an domain ani sin.




---

p.38


[Calor et
frigidus opus uetimens](G600030/app265.html)  in
terrum, etc.
----------------


As dasachtac mear na gnimharta dani fuacht & teas a talmain, oir isin t-*s*amrad, an trat [teighes](G600030/app266.html) teas na greine ag*aid* na talman, o nach [fuilingid](G600030/app267.html) da ni contrardha beit a n-en inadh, tethidh an fuacht roimh an teas [a n-doimne](G600030/app268.html) na talman & fuarid sin an t-uisci dageib fo talmain & as uime sin bis uisci na tob*ar* fuar is in t-samrad, & ar an adb*ar* cedna, le fad na greine uainn is in geimridh [gab*aid*](G600030/app269.html) an [fuacht](G600030/app270.html) nert annsin ar uachtar na talman so uile & cuiridh an teas a teitead a n-inne na talman astech & [is uime sin bid uiscedha](G600030/app271.html) na tob*ar* te sa gemrid. Agus an trath bis an fuacht sin a n-inne na talman isin t-samradh co nertmar, calcaidh se & cubaid se e fein annsin o nac [leiginn](G600030/app272.html) daingne & dluithi na talman do dul amach, & gac fad da m-bia ann as moidi a nert & a brig. Et annsa [g*eim*r*ed*](G600030/app273.html) , an trat cuires fuacht [aitchi](G600030/app274.html) na talman an teas asteach a n-inne na talman & dageib ar a cinn astigh an prisunach .i. fuacht inne na talman, gnimaidhid ar a ceili & [dab ail](G600030/app275.html) le gac neac acu a celi da scris & crotaidh an talam & is risin crothad sin aderar terra motus .i. [crit na talman](G600030/app276.html) & tic as in crotadh sin co n-gerrtar & co m-brister an talam & teit gaeth mhor maille *re* toirnigh & re foghar [as](G600030/app277.html) in brisid sin & teit crefoc & cloca leis & gibe duine no ainmigi no [caislen no raed ele daingin da m-beanfad](G600030/app278.html) cloc aca sin, ni gebhad uatha gan dul trit.


Et as minic tegmas a n-uair terra motus co n-dorcaigter an grian & is e ni o tic an dorchadus sin .i. an gaeth tren tic [as an](G600030/app279.html) brisid sin na talman, [seidid](G600030/app280.html) si co 


---

p.40




nertmar comachtach moran [cannuir](G600030/app281.html) & crefoigi uaithi suas is in aer & bigh an [cainniur](G600030/app282.html) sin mar nel idir an talam & an grian & boinid solus na 
greine do na cineadhachaibh na timcill.


Agus uair eli brisid an terra motus an talam fon fairrgi & seidigh an gaeth tic as an [uisci](G600030/app283.html) [suas fon aer](G600030/app284.html) & cuiridh sin an fairrgi a fiuchadh [adbul](G600030/app285.html) mhor. Et rebaigh an crit cedna na cnuic & na sleibhti an trat bis adbhur [futa](G600030/app286.html) innus co fagann fuachaisi [doimne d*ub*a](G600030/app287.html) innus nac [faicter](G600030/app288.html) grinneall tar eis.


Et 'na dedaid sin tic [la](G600030/app289.html) egsamlacht an inaid a m-bid na h-uiscedha examlacht an blassa da beth orra, or gid en t*-s*ustaint ata ag na h-uiscedaibh uili, [gabaidh examlacht aicidec cugi da rer blassa an talman a m-bi](G600030/app290.html) . Et as uime sin an t-uisci bis a n-inadh clocach gainmech, bl*as* milis bis air & [an t-uisci bis a talmain goirt, blas saillti bis air](G600030/app291.html) & an t-uisci bis a talmain labain bl*as* [t*ra*gain(?)](G600030/app292.html) bis air & an t-uisci bis a talmain serb [an a m-bi clocha sulfuir no ailimi](G600030/app293.html) , no an t-inadh a m-bi mianach prais no umha no neici serba eli, blas serb bis ar in uisci sin. Agus mar sin da rer examlacht [aic*idi* bl*ass*a](G600030/app294.html) na talman a m-bid na h-uiscedha, cl*aech*l*igid* an t-uisci aic*id* bl*ass*a.


Et 'na diaidh sin na srotha bis ac [sibal](G600030/app295.html) ar uachtar talman, an trat [tegmas](G600030/app296.html) talam lac soscailti orra, tollaidh [siat](G600030/app297.html) e & [doni sligteca](G600030/app298.html) diamra doib fein ann fo talmain no co tecmann talam doscailti orra nac liginn tairis iat don taeb so na don taib eli. Et o gabtar mar sin riu [tis](G600030/app299.html) brisidh an talam os a cinn suas & doni toibreaca dib da rer meidi no laiged na srotann fo talmain o tigid, no da rer imaid na fertana 


---

p.42


[a tigid na srotanna](G600030/app300.html) , oir is da rer sin linaid & traigid na [tobraca](G600030/app301.html) .


Et as e ni o tic sailltecht usci na fairrgi .i. on a *a*rrs*aig*echt fen & o sirbualadh na tonn fo na clocaib & o sibal na greine riam os a cinn & o innarbad na codac as millsi don uisci aisti o teasbac na greine. Oir tairrngid teasbac na greine an cuid as *s*eime & as millsi d'uisci na f*airrgi* suas a nelaib [an aeir](G600030/app302.html) & is de sin [dani](G600030/app303.html) an drucht & in fertain & in sneachta & an cloitshneachta & gac ni eli da tic anuas. Et facaid tis an rann is truime [& is reime](G600030/app304.html) & is tal*manda* & [is](G600030/app305.html) serbhi & is on naduir cedna bis fual an duine serb, oir an t-oibriug*ad* dani grian os cinn na fairrgi [as e sin doni](G600030/app306.html) l*ionn* r*uad* os cinn an fuail 'ga sithl*od* & ac tarraing na rann seimh uadha.


Et as si an cuis cedna dabeir ar an usci dageib moran da b*er**b*ud beit serb, [teasi*gacht*](G600030/app307.html) na tened ic tarraing na rann seimh uadha. Et an trat
dageib an t-uisci saillti sin na fairrgi moran da b*er*b*ad* ar teni no o grein a tirtaib te [calcaidh se & cruag*aid* & impoid*id* se a naduir](G600030/app308.html) na talman & is e sin an salann tig cugainn. Et as e doni an t-oibr*iugad* sin .i. ro b*er*b*ad* na tineadh no na greine a tarraing na rann seimh uadha uili & ar na sitlodh mar sin & ar na cruthugad fein & ar na inntod a naduir na talman da rer corp*o*rdachta. Agus [duair ann](G600030/app309.html) ceangailter na h-uisceadha millsi & co sunnradach uisci na srotann o dasacht na [fuar*dhachta*](G600030/app310.html) & doni eigrid dib & ni leiginn an teas nadurtha ata sa fairgi, & beit na comnaige di, an ceangal sin da gabail cuci on [f*uacht*](G600030/app311.html) oir is i naduir na [fuar*dhachta*](G600030/app312.html) , gach ni roites da cheangal & naduir [an](G600030/app313.html) t*easa* gac ni ceangailti da scailid, mar aderaid [na fealls*amain*](G600030/app314.html) .




---

p.44


[Don da cnoc ar lasadh atara(?) .i. **Etna** an **Sisaile** & **Ueranes** is in **Apaile** a inad(?) na sulfure](G600030/app315.html) [occacio huius 
ignis est etcetera](G600030/app316.html) . Dico quod .
-------------


Aderim gorab e [med](G600030/app317.html) na sulfure as adb*ur* don teine bis ar lassadh da sir & is mar so as e .i. an trath tinnscnas an [teine](G600030/app318.html) gnimh da deanam a [cuisl*enn*aib](G600030/app319.html) na sulfaire fo talmain, ni fanann ac sir lasadh na sulfairi & talman [roimhe](G600030/app320.html) co domuctha.


Agus is mar sin doni puill & cabain roimhe sa talmain & in trat tair le [an t-sulfur](G600030/app321.html) ata do naduir ann co fasann aris. Et an tan fases [impoid](G600030/app322.html) aris & loisgidh [aris](G600030/app323.html) e & bith an fas sin na sulfuri & losgad na teinedh ar fas tri bithu sir & [teilgidh](G600030/app324.html) an lasair, mar [eirges](G600030/app325.html) aisti, a lan da caeraib & da [caebaib teined](G600030/app326.html) tic o fol*ad* na sulfuri aisti amach & cruinnig*id* sin ar en slighi & doni sleibti dib. Et as minic cluinter [fogar](G600030/app327.html) mor aduatmar on gaith ac dul asteach is na fedanaib sin & [a seidedh](G600030/app328.html) leis in lasair ac dul amac. Et atait [na h-uiscedha](G600030/app329.html) tusm*ig*ter o na h-inadaib teinntighi sin t*e*, oir mar adubramar gabaid na h-uisceadha aic*id* on inadh a ticid *Mas gluasacht siraidhi *ingantac* dani na nethi ingantacha sin*.


Luna uisbiliter in mare etcetera.
---------------------------------


.i. Gnimhaidhi an re co follus is in fairrgi & is na neicibh fl*iucha* ele, oir aderaid na fealls*amain* nach anann an fairrgi ac sirlinadh on trat bis an re a ponc oirrcher a cercaille [conic](G600030/app330.html) an trat fa m-binn se a mullach a cercailli [& nach anann aris as sin a sir tragadh no co m-bi ac dul fai a ponc iarthair a cercailli](G600030/app331.html) . Et nac anann as sin aris ac sirlinadh no 


---

p.46




co m-bi an re a ponc medhonac a cercailli fo talmain. Et as sin aris nach anann ac sir [tragadh](G600030/app332.html) no co m-bi a ponc [oirrcerac](G600030/app333.html) a cercailli & tinnscnaidh annsin aris linad mar darinne roimhe.


Et mar sin da rer eirghi & dul fai an esga, ni anann an fhairgi co brac ac linadh & ac tragad & an trat bis an re a [n-enceime](G600030/app334.html) ris in n-grein is annsin as mo & as tinne a solus .i. a tosac
[gacha](G600030/app335.html) mis & is annsin as ro mho [tragad](G600030/app336.html) & linadh na fairrgi. An dara cuairt as mo [tragad & linadh](G600030/app337.html) na fairgi .i. a medhon gacha mis an trat bis solus lan ac an re [laca rinne](G600030/app338.html) , oir as annsin frithbuailter solus na greine anuas on re d'innsaighi na fairrgi & oibr*ig*i sin [tragadh & linadh](G600030/app339.html) na fairrgi.


Agus as mar sin foill*sig*es an re na gnimharta cedna a smir & a n-incinn & a fuil [na n-daine](G600030/app340.html) oir medaigter & laidigtar na tri neici sin a tosac & a medon gacha mis [da rer cursa an re](G600030/app341.html) . Et da rer sin ni tigid eslaini na [droca](G600030/app342.html) fola mar atait [n*eas*c*oid*i (?)](G600030/app343.html) & neici[5](javascript:footNote('G600030/note005.html')) iomda eli ach a tosach & a medon gaca mis.


Et as follus aris gnimana an re da rer bisidh & dombisidh is na [cucumeraib](G600030/app344.html) & is na [cucurbitaibh](G600030/app345.html) & is gac en ni a tigernaiginn an fl*ice* da rer cursa an re. Et is si so a cuis nadurtha sin, oir ata tigernas ag an re ar na neicibh fl*iucha*, & ar usci na fairgi co sunnradach, mar ata ag adhamas ar in iarann, oir mar [tairrnges](G600030/app346.html) [adhamas](G600030/app347.html) an t-iarann cuici as mar sin tairrnges an re uisci na fairrgi & is ris sin aderar [linad](G600030/app348.html) na fairrgi. Et an trat scuires se don tarraing sin impaid an fairgi d'innsaighe a h-inaid fein aniar & is ris sin aderar tragad.


Et as folluse an tragad so & an linad a [n-oircer](G600030/app349.html) an domain & na iartar na sa **Muir Ruaidh** no a **Muir na 


---

p.48




h-Africi** no isna maraib eli tic on fairgi moir, oir i*s* sibal [direach](G600030/app350.html) ata ac blodh acu sin siar gaca dirga, & soir gaca dirgha linas blod eli acu tre brig [oibr*ighth*i](G600030/app351.html) an re ass a cinn. Et as uime sin nac follus an linad sin na'n tragad ar cladacaib na mara annsin.


Agus d'foill*siugad* na n-oibr*igth*i sin an re a timcill [traigti & linta an](G600030/app352.html) mara, dagen fidair [iomitre](G600030/app353.html) annso tis & dagen ar dus fidair comcruinn na talman ar na roinn a ceithre rannaib comtroma & scribocad na ceithre litreaca so ['na n-inadaib](G600030/app354.html) fein a timcill na ceithre rann sin .i. A, B, C, D, [litre](G600030/app355.html) & scribochad a timcill na talman samail cercaille an re & cuirfed E 'na h-oirrcer & F 'na medon [mullaid](G600030/app356.html) & G 'na h-iartar & H 'na medon ictar & [dubochad](G600030/app357.html) leth na fairrgi don talmain & faicfead an leth ele tir*im*, geal. Ma sed an trat bis an re a n-oircer a cercailli fein a ponc E co direc ar comar A, as annsin tinnscnas an fairgi linadh & ni anann ac sir linadh co soitinn an re a ponc F, ata ar comair B. Agus is annsin tin*n*scnus an muir [tragadh](G600030/app358.html) & ni scuirinn ac sir [tragadh](G600030/app359.html) no co roitinn an re ponc G ata ar comair C. Et bidh sin ac sir linad no co roitinn an re p*onc* H ar comair D & bidh aris ac sir tragad no co roitinn an re ar comair A.


![to face p. 48](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face48.gif)


Solent quidam imperiti aserere etcetera
---------------------------------------


.i. Aderaid blodh do na eolcaib tuile t-srotha [**Nil**](G600030/app360.html) do techt a fertanaib mora noch feras a cricaib ciana & mar [linas](G600030/app361.html) an sroth, [sceighidh](G600030/app362.html) amach ar fud ferainn na [h-**Eigifti**](G600030/app363.html) & ani dani an fertain [do na cineadacaib](G600030/app364.html) eli, is e sin doni uisci srota **Nil** do na h-**Egeftecaib**. Et aderm*uid*-ne nach fuil [ardhamaint](G600030/app365.html) na resun acu san da derbad na neithi sin ach baram*ail*


---

p.50




amhain, oir mar dacit siat srotha eli an domain da linadh [o fertanaibh](G600030/app366.html) , sailid gorab mar sin linas srut **Nil**.


[Derbocamaid-ni](G600030/app367.html) anois [gora*b* breg](G600030/app368.html) an baram*ail* sin, oir da madh iat na fertana, [mar adubradar san](G600030/app369.html) , cuis tuili srota **Nil**, da linfaide gan aimsir [airithe](G600030/app370.html) cum a linta gac uair d'ferfad ann co h-acmainnech trit an m-bl*iadain* amach, mar lintar na srota eli. Et as follus da gac aen daci e nac lintar an srot sin acht a n-aimsir airithi sa bl*iadhain* .i. a mi Adhuist; ach [an trat](G600030/app371.html) feras co h-imarcac a crich egin laim ris an **Eghift**, gabaidh an srot sin becan linta on fertain sin, oir an fertain feras a cricaib ciana on **Eghift** [ni](G600030/app372.html) medaiginn [si](G600030/app373.html) srot **Nil** [caiti](G600030/app374.html) ar son rofad tobair an th-srota on **Egift** & ar rotirma na talman & is ime sin, gibe trat d'earrach no da th-samradh no d'aimsir eli feras ann, suidhid an ferann gainmec rotirim & britin na greine uisci na fertana & ni liginn e d'innsaidi an t-srota. No an trat lintar tri imarcaidh fertana, maille le fuarlochaib mora, an srot, ata da teas [an talman](G600030/app375.html) a timcill an t-srota, nach tusca lintar na fuarlaidhi na suighes an talam iad. Ni minic bis an t-uisci aicideach sa t-srot sin & bidh caithi linta [port re port](G600030/app376.html) da uisci fein.


Da derbad sin, da n-dernta [claidhi](G600030/app377.html) a m-bedh da ced no tri ced mili ar fad [an](G600030/app378.html) talman tirim [ge madh](G600030/app379.html) mor d'uisci [da doirtfea a ceann de](G600030/app380.html) da t-suidfedh an talam uili e [sul](G600030/app381.html) [da roised en deoir](G600030/app382.html) an ceann eli de; & is mar sin t-shuiges talamh brithnech [te](G600030/app383.html) srota **Nil** na h-uiscada feras na timcill sul [shoitid](G600030/app384.html) an **Eghift**, ma sedh ni hi an fertain cuis tuili srota **Nil**.


Ni ele da derbad an raeda cedna mar [dacualasa](G600030/app385.html) om arsantaib fein .i. da sailedar **Egiftidh** uair egin nach linfad srot **Nil** no co [curtaighi](G600030/app386.html) an maighdin 


---

p.52




budh ailli & bud ferr [deissi](G600030/app387.html) isin **Eighift** ann, & is uime sin da ba egin doib [fuarlaidhi an t-srota d'faghail da fliuchad an ferainn](G600030/app388.html) , oir as e sin bis acu a n-inadh na fertana; & da curdis an maidhin as ailli [dageibthi](G600030/app389.html) ansa cric uili a tosac mi Auust annsa srot, & da linad an srot an uair [da eissi sin](G600030/app390.html) & ni h-ar son na mna do cur annsin acht ar son a aimsiri fein da [techt](G600030/app391.html) . Agus da linadh an **Eghift** na timcill fein uile & da bi an mon*adh* so a [n-gnathochann (?)](G600030/app392.html) isin **Eigift** no co tainic aimser [Thomarus](G600030/app393.html) [6](javascript:footNote('G600030/note006.html')) .i. ri na h-**Eigifti**. Et mar daconnaic [an ec](G600030/app394.html) isin angnath*adh*(?) borbpecac sin [a tosach mis Adhuist, do rinne litir bec](G600030/app395.html) & adubairt innti ‘A n-ainm an tigerna trocairidh [Thomarus](G600030/app396.html) righ na h-**Eighifti**, betha & slainti da srot **Nil**, & [madh ail](G600030/app397.html) let, [a srot **Nil**](G600030/app398.html) , tri cumachtaib De t'uisci da dortad ar ferann na h-**Eigifti**, [guidmid](G600030/app399.html) thu [ma](G600030/app400.html) denum anois & munab ail let, ni fuil br*ig* acainn innut.’ Agus da chuir an litir annsa srot annsin, & ni trit an litir, [na](G600030/app401.html) trit an mnai, ac mar tainic a aimser fein [da cuir](G600030/app402.html) dar a bordaib co h-acmuinnech & do lin an **Egift**. Et as uime sin, da mad o na fertanaib sin [da ticfedh an tuili sin](G600030/app403.html) , as a minic sa bl*iadain* feras ann, as minic [do linfad](G600030/app404.html) an srot. Ma sed os a breg an baram*ail* so, [oisceol-sa](G600030/app405.html) cuis firinnech [tuili](G600030/app406.html) [srota](G600030/app407.html) **Nil**.


Agus aderim gorab idir oirrcer an domain & an ard teas ata bun an t-srota & idir iartar an domain & an aird tuaig teit se [a](G600030/app408.html) fairgi & is amlaid ata aer na h-**Egifti** t*e*, tir*im* & ni licinn gaeth na [neil](G600030/app409.html) na fertain inti co brac ac co h-annam. Oir, ge tait na crica 


---

p.54




eli ac seidid 'na timcill, [dluthaid & daingnidh](G600030/app410.html) an t-aer sin, innas corab maille *re* h-anfad romhor teit neil no fertain tar coicrich an aeir sin astec. Agus an uair ainminic theit, bid toirrnec adhuathmar ann & gaeth [romor](G600030/app411.html) & teinntec mhor noch marbas eall*ach* na h-**Egifti**. Et as i naduir an aeir coitcinn, an trat teidhes, [dul](G600030/app412.html) a scailedh & a letni; & an tan fuaras, timsaighi d'innsaigi a celi, & [dluth*aid*](G600030/app413.html) & tairrngidh gach ni is cosmail ris da innsaighi. Aer na mara, as fuare e san [aithi](G600030/app414.html) na sa lo & is ime sin an trat ardaighes [an](G600030/app415.html) grian co h-inadh medon lae, tri teas na g*rein*e, scail*id* an t-aer & lethnaidh & seididh an gaet aniar on uair sin co taca medon [aichi](G600030/app416.html) a n-doirsib na srotann t-silis is in fairrgi siar, & buailidh a n-ag*aid* na srotana & teilgid iat da n-ainneoin tar a n-ais & ni liginn doib siled sa fairgi no co [m-boininn](G600030/app417.html) fuacht na [h-aithi](G600030/app418.html) a br*ig* [as](G600030/app419.html) teas na greini; & is mar sin as o teas an aeir tic gabhail risna srotaib & is o fuacht an aeir tic an siledh. Et mar is teo aer na mara sa lo na san [aithi](G600030/app420.html) & gorab o neasacht na greine duinn & o na fad uainn tig an cl*aech*l*od* [sin](G600030/app421.html) ar an aer, ma sedh an aimser ana ro foicsi duinn sa bl*iadain* hi .i. an samradh, as ann as roteo an t-aer sin na fairgi. Et as ime sin *on* ced la da mhi Mai conuic an taca [a](G600030/app422.html) tet an grian a [n-eccinocsium](G600030/app423.html) Septimpir, seididh gaet na fairgi soir d'innsaighi na h-**Egifti** as cinn srota **Nil** & cuiridh re h-aer na h-**Egifti** da gluasacht & da chur as a inadh fein.


Et o [ta](G600030/app424.html) an t-aer sin tirim, trom, [dogl*uas*ta](G600030/app425.html) gabaidh risin n-gaith & ni fagann a inadh fein, & an gaet bis oc sir seididh, o nac fadann slidhi eli, cuiridh srot **Nil** da aineoin tar a ais & ni leiginn en deor de sa fairgi, & scubaid an gaeth cedna moran da 


---

p.56




gaineamh na fairgi a n-dorus srota **Nil** [da ainneoin](G600030/app426.html) . Et as uime sin, o nac leigter sibal dan t-srot sa fairgi, linaidh se ar fud na h-**Eighifti** suas & bid an tuili sin ar bun an comfad bis a brig fein sa gaith .i. [feadh](G600030/app427.html) na h-aimsire adubramar o cianaibh, on ced la da mhi Mai co h-eccinocium Septimpir & as annsin tinnscnus a brig dul as an n-gaith & facus an grian a mullach na fairgi & [islides](G600030/app428.html) si deis a celi san aird teas don doman. Et o nac fedann uisci an t-srota gabail ris an gaith mar fuair conuice sin, brisidh se an sliab gainimh & teit roimhe sa fairrgi & fagaidh in **Egift** & is annsin donit na h-**Egiftidh** [treabad & cur](G600030/app429.html) , o bis a deimhin acu nac toirmeoscadh an srot iat co d-*t*i an aimser cedna aris. Et mar sin is follus co [toirmeoscaithi](G600030/app430.html) iat co minic ni bud tusca na n-aimsir sin da madh o na fertanaib da ticfad tuili srota **Nil**.


Et [tecmaid](G600030/app431.html) an linadh [cedna](G600030/app432.html) da srotaib na cric [eli](G600030/app433.html) siles is in fairgi siar gin co tecmann co mor re srot **Nil**, oir ni fuil acht aer lag sogl*u*asta, nac gabann ansin n-gaith & [gluaises](G600030/app434.html) le gac slighe da m-berinn e is na cricaib ele. Et as ime sin nac [bi](G600030/app435.html) lethad tuili srota **Nil** a n-en t-sroth eli is na cricaibh &[co raib in ti da crutaid srot **Nil** bennaithi tre bithu sir](G600030/app436.html) [in secla cecloram](G600030/app437.html) .


Dico sicut superius ueraciter etcetera.
---------------------------------------


Aderim co firinneach [mar](G600030/app438.html) adubart ar dus gurub iat as cirp[7](javascript:footNote('G600030/note007.html')) edroma ann, na cuirp gluaises o medon co nuic [an cercaill](G600030/app439.html) timcill & gurub iat as cirp troma ann, na cirp gluaisis as sin co medon & gurub ac na ceithre duilib & [ac](G600030/app440.html) gac ni cumusctar astu atait an da gluasacht [direca sin](G600030/app441.html) . Ma sedh o nac gluaisinn an firmamint o medon no co medon, tuirter nach trom & 


---

p.58




nac edrom hi, oir da mad trom hi da gluaisfedh co medon & da madh etrom da gluaisfedh o medhon & o nac neachtar acu sin tuicter hi, tuicter ['na deag*aid*](G600030/app442.html) sin nac te hi & nac fuar, oir as annsna corpaib te mar ata an tene bis an edromacht & nac fuil sisi edrom mar da derbamar, as egin nac fuil t*eas* innti, & os is na corpaib troma, mar ata an talam, bis an fuar*dhacht*, a nach fuil an firmamint trom is egin nach fuil [f*uacht* innti](G600030/app443.html) . Tuicter aris as sin [nac fuil an firmamint fli*uch* na tir*im*](G600030/app444.html) , oir oibridh an [fl*ich*i](G600030/app445.html) amluas ansa corp a m-bi, mar dani san aer gluaises o medon & annsan uisci gluaises co medon. Agus mar sin oibr*ig*es [tirm*ig*acht](G600030/app446.html) luas is na corpaibh a m-bi, mar oibr*ig*es isin tene gluaises a medon & isin talmain gluaises co medon. Et o nac fuil luas na amluas isin firmamint, ni bi uair is luathi ina ceili na uair is amluaithi na celi on trat da crutaigh Dia [e](G600030/app447.html) acht en [gluasacht inann cobsaidh siraidhi](G600030/app448.html) da bi & ata & bias aigi co deredh an domain. Et as ime sin nac fuil fl*iche* na tir*me* as a ticfadh luas na mailli ann. Et mar sin is e an gluasacht cedna ata ac speir na n-airdrinnach & ac secht speirib na secht plained da bhi & bias co deiredh an domain.


Et atait blodh do na [haineolcaib](G600030/app449.html) ata [co h-ainfeasac](G600030/app450.html) a gnimartaib De, 'ga rad gurab is na ceithre duilib da [cumuscadh](G600030/app451.html) an firmamint, & ata co follus a n-agaid na firinni, oir ni fuilnginn resun, o ta an naduir exam*ail* ag an cetharduil an gac uili ni on naduir na firmaminti, co [cumusceotaid](G600030/app452.html) an firmamint astu san. Oir is i naduir na cethardula, mar adubrumar, blod acu da gluasacht co medon & blod ele o medon amach & an gluasacht sin da beth co h-aimserda & a beth nis luaite 'na deredh na 'na tosach & comnaidhi sir da beit acu na n-inadh fein & gan na h-inadh sin d'fhagail [caithi](G600030/app453.html) acht da n-ainneoin, 


---

p.60




oir is comhaisi [gac duil don cetharduil](G600030/app454.html) re cele & a comnaighi nadurtha.


Agus leis sin atait caili iomdha isin cetharduil .i. [t*es*](G600030/app455.html) & f*uacht*, fl*iche* & tir*ime*, etruma & troma, luas & mailli, & is amlaid ata naduir na firmam*inti* [a cert ag*aid*](G600030/app456.html) na naduir sin, oir [a n-ag*aid*](G600030/app457.html) gluasachta dirid na cethardula ata gluasacht timcill na firmaminnti [& a n-ag*aid* aimserachta an gluasachta sin ata siraigecht a n-gluasacht na firmaminti](G600030/app458.html) & i n-ag*aid* luais & maille an gluasachta sin [ata siraidacht maille a n-gluasacht na firmaminti](G600030/app459.html) . Et a n-ag*aid* com*naidi* sir na cethardula [na n-inadaib](G600030/app460.html) fein ata sibal sirnadurtha na h-inadh fein ac an firmamint. Et mar as [comaisi](G600030/app461.html) an cetharduil & a comnaidhi re celi as mar sin as comaisi an firmamint & a gluasacht re [celi](G600030/app462.html) & ata a n-egmuis gach uili [cail](G600030/app463.html) da cailib na [cethardula](G600030/app464.html) ; oir ni fuil [t*eas* na f*uacht*, na fl*iche* na tir*me*](G600030/app465.html) innte [na etromacht na troma](G600030/app466.html) na luas na mailli.


Et mar daniter ranna na cethardula ni [truaillidter](G600030/app467.html) & ni cl*aech*l*ig*ter hi co brac ach mar da bi o tus an domhuin co daingin duinti dotruaill*idthe* doscailti, & is mar sin bias [co nic](G600030/app468.html) an cric d'ordaidh an tusmiteor di. Ma sedh o ta naduir na cethardula & naduir na firmaminti co direch a n-ag*aid* a celi, as a n-ag*aid* resuin & naduir ader*ar* gorab is in cethard*uil* da comasced an firmamint.


Resun eli a n-ag*aid* na baramla cedna .i. gach uile ni cumuscter [a netib contrardha bis ac oibri*ugad* a n-ag*aid* a ceili](G600030/app469.html) & bis a truaill*ed* a ceili truaill*ig*ter uili fa deredh e, mar atait na daine & na h-ainminnti & gach uili ni ele cumuscter sa cetharduil a m-bid caili contrardha na n-dul a scris a ceili & an trat gabhas cail acu tigernas ar in cail ele [truaillidter](G600030/app470.html) co h-uili an raed cumusct*er*


---

p.62




asta. [Mar sin da cumusctaidh](G600030/app471.html) an f*irmamint* is na ceithre duilib o na cailib contrara sin da beit ac truaill*ed* a celi [da scailfithe & da truaillfithi](G600030/app472.html) an firmamint fo dereadh.


Ma sedh o nach faicter & o nac facas & o nac [ficfiter](G600030/app473.html) comarta an scailti [uair](G600030/app474.html) , tuicter corab cian uaithi beth ar na cumosc isin
cethard*uil*. [Ma sedh in te d'ordaigh mar sin i co roib bennaithi o gac aen dacitf*edh hi*.](G600030/app475.html) 


Quando Deus firmamentum creauit etcetera.
-----------------------------------------


.i. An [trat](G600030/app476.html) da tuismidh Dia an [firmamint](G600030/app477.html) da ordaid se gluasacht coimlinta foirfi nac fasann & nac teit ar cul [caithe](G600030/app478.html) , oir as [re](G600030/app479.html) ceithre h-uairib *fichet* coimhlinas an firmamint a timcill co neamhfailleach nemmheallta & is iat na ceithre h-uaire *fichet* sin as [aitchi](G600030/app480.html) & is la ann.


Da rinne fos Dia speir na greine d'foill*siugad* lae & [aitchi](G600030/app481.html) & a [cailidechta](G600030/app482.html) & a fad & a n-girri & d'foill*siugad* [mesardachta neamdha & examlachta fasta](G600030/app483.html) & [traighti teasa & fuachta a n-inadaib](G600030/app484.html) examla cum na creatuir da silad o ceili & cum ordaithi an domain da coimlinadh; oir da n-gluaisidh an firmamint & an grian ni [bud](G600030/app485.html) luaithi na mar danit, da gerrfaidi na laeithe & na h-aiteda & in beit aimser coimlinta a [gnimhartad](G600030/app486.html) ac an grein & da locfadais na creatuir tal*amanda* fas; & da n-gluaisdis nis maille na mar danit da [faideochaidh](G600030/app487.html) la & aithi & mar sin da beth grian [co rofad](G600030/app488.html) os cinn na talman & da [bruitfedh & da tirmochad](G600030/app489.html) ag*aid* na talman & ni leigfeadh en red d'fas tri talmain. Et mar sin ni fedfaidis daine aitreabocan da denamh isin aird bu dheas don doman mar donit anois leted [se ceiminna deg](G600030/app490.html)


---

p.64




don taib astigh don line medonac an domain, oir [daghenadh](G600030/app491.html) rocomnaidhi na greini an t-inad sin co doaitrebta. Agus mar sin timcill deiridh se [ceimin*na*](G600030/app492.html) & tri *fichit* ceim na firmaminti on line cedna bud thuaidh, [da beth](G600030/app493.html) an t-inadh futa [co](G600030/app494.html) doaitrebtha tri f*uacht* na h-aithi rofaidi. Et ata an tinadh o deredh na se ceimin*na* & tri *fichit* sin doaitrebtha tre [fuar*dhacht*](G600030/app495.html) anmesardha conuic an inadh ata co direach [fa cuairt](G600030/app496.html) na greine. Oir an trat claenas an grian dan taib [u](G600030/app497.html) deas don doman, fasaid an fuar*dhacht* an medi sin isin taeb budhtuaidh innus nach fedaid ainminnti [aitrebachan](G600030/app498.html) ann & nach fasait a crainn. Et mar sin don taib amuith [don line adubrumar u dheas](G600030/app499.html) ni aitrebhaid daine [na](G600030/app500.html) ainminnti ann tre imarcridh teasa, & is in [crit](G600030/app501.html) as foicsi don line sin don taib astidh atait na fir gorma noc dubus o t*eas* ainmesarda na greine.


Adobrumar [thuas](G600030/app502.html) nac fuil en cail do na cailib contrara o tic gac truaill*ed* & gac scail*ed* isin firmamint, & mar sin ni fuil contraracht na gluasacht acu oir is egin da gluasacht cac uili cuirp isin doman beth cruinn no direc no cumusca asta ar aen amail ata gluasacht na cartach. An gluasacht cruinn & direc co nemhcumusca atait siat. As ime sin, gac corp cumasca & nemcumasca as cruinn no direach gluaises se. Acht is e is gluasacht cruinn ann an gluasacht teit mar samail [cercaill](G600030/app503.html) a dimcill medoin. Acht is [e](G600030/app504.html) is gluasacht direach ann an gluasacht teit o medon [tuas co medon tis](G600030/app505.html) & atait na tri gluasachta na n-gluasachtaib nemcomusca & is nemcomusca an gluasacht cruinn na'n da gluasacht eli oir is neamcumusca an corp gluaisis mar sin na gach uili corp.


Et an [da](G600030/app506.html) gluasacht sin teit co medon [& o medon](G600030/app507.html) as cumusca iat ac fecain an gluasachta 


---

p.66




timcill cumascter sa cetharduil, oir ni fuil gluasacht cumusca ann co firinneach ach an gluasacht sin & ge ta gac [en](G600030/app508.html) corp do na ceithre corpaibh duilita cumusca as da cail, nemcumusca iat ac fecain na corp cumuscter asta. Et as amlaid ata an gluasacht timcill, ar son [a](G600030/app509.html) beth nadurtha dho na gluasacht fhoirfi, gan tosac gan deridh aigi, gan a sibal da beith cum comhnaighi na cum impoidh tar ais; & ni mar sin dan gluasacht direc noch gluaises d'uairib ann co h-ainneonac na cirp[8](javascript:footNote('G600030/note008.html')), oir in trat bis duil egin dan taibh amuith da h-inadh nadurtha fein gluaisidh co h-obann tar a h-ais d'innsaidhi a h-inaidh fein aris & anaidh co nadurtha annsin & is ime sin bis [tosac & deiridh](G600030/app510.html) ag an gluasacht sin. Agus is red nemfoirfi [in](G600030/app511.html) raed ag a m-bi [tosac & deridh](G600030/app512.html) & is mar sin as gluasacht neamhfoirfi an gluasacht direc. Et mar as tusca & as mo & is buaine & is [uaisli](G600030/app513.html) gach ni foirfi na gac ni nemhfoirfi & is mar sin teit an gluasacht timcill isna ceiminnaib cedna tar in n-gluasacht n-direc.


Tuilledh da derbadh an raeda cedna. Aderaid na fealls*amain* an gluasacht bhis co h-ainneonac do ni, bid se co nadurtha dan ni eli, mar ata dul suas na teinedh & na talman [no](G600030/app514.html) dul sis na deise cedna. Et mar as aicideach gac ni aindeonac & mar as *s*ustaint gac ni deonac [nadurtha](G600030/app515.html) & mar as contrardha [in t-aicid](G600030/app516.html) & in t-sustaint da celi, is mar sin is contrardha an gluasacht ainneonac & in gluasacht nadurtha da ceili. Et ni h-ed amhain ach in ni [ata](G600030/app517.html) tis & tuas, [deas & cle](G600030/app518.html) , roimhe & ['na dedaidh](G600030/app519.html) , atait contrardha da ceili. Et mar as uaisli gach ni ac na bi contrardacht na an i ag a m-bi as mar sin as uaisli an gluasacht timcill ac nac fuil contrardacht na gac gluasacht eli da n-dobart.


Tuilledh eli da derbadh a*n* [neic](G600030/app520.html) cedna; gach uili ni gluaises co nadurtha da gluasacht [direc](G600030/app521.html) , fedtar a 


---

p.68




gluasacht co h-ainneonac & a n-ag*aid* naduir & ni mar sin [don gluasacht timcill, oir an cursa cruinn timcill da h-ordaid*edh* dho a tus](G600030/app522.html) an domuin da bi & ata & bias co nemmellta, gan cor da taib da na taebaib, 'ga congmail sin tri bithu sir. Ma sedh is [follus gorab](G600030/app523.html) tusca buaine an gluasacht timcill na'n gluasacht eli.


Et ce ta an gluasacht [air leth](G600030/app524.html) a gac rotha do [rothaib](G600030/app525.html) na firmaminti, is le celi gluaisid uili gan contraracht, oir da m-beth contraracht is in firmamint mar ata is na corpaib duilita, gac ni oibr*ig*es si innta sin daghenadh a macasamhla isin firmamint & mar sin an corp u treisi [sin](G600030/app526.html) firmamint, da cl*aech*l*ochad* se a na naduir fein an corp budh anmaine [& mar sin dacitfimis](G600030/app527.html) na plaineid & na h-airdrinnaidh & na retlanna eli uair budh mho & budh ludha iat na ceili. Ni faicter so anois [& ni facas](G600030/app528.html) & ni [faicfer](G600030/app529.html) caithi. Ma sedh is follus a ni as a [tuicfidi](G600030/app530.html) na cl*aech*l*igti* sin .i. an contraracht is in firmamint.


Et [as amlaid ata an corp mor seimh daingin](G600030/app531.html) is in firmamint 'na cercaill cruinn mar sam*ail* liatroidi a timcill a seantruim fein & a ponc [a puinc medonaidh](G600030/app532.html) ag anmain a n-en inadh co brac & a cumscug*ad* da sir & is derb gorab comtrom an gluasacht sin o nac derna [en](G600030/app533.html) comnide da laided riamh & nac gluaisinn uair is luaithi na's maille na celi. Agus is mar sin atait secht [c*er*c*aill*](G600030/app534.html) na secht pla*in*ed .i. Luna, Mercuir, Venir, Sol, Mars, Ioip, Saturnus & c*er*c*all* na n-airdrinnach [ndogluasti](G600030/app535.html) & cercall an da comarta deg mar [ata cercall re n-dubrumar](G600030/app536.html) an firmamint. Et as mar sin da badar na deich c*er*c*aill* so on uair da crut*aig* Dia iat & is aml*aid* beit co brac an comfad as ail leisin a m-beth aml*aid*.




---

p.70


Et aderaid na h-aineolaidh co fuilit primcaili na n-dul & caili na nethidh [cumasca](G600030/app537.html) astu isin da comartha deg & is na plainedaib & ader*aid* co fuil Airges, & Leo & Saigitairius t*e* tir*im* da rer naduir na teinead & Taurus, Uirgo, [Capricornus f*uar* tir*im* do rer naduir na talman; Gemin, Libra, Acarius t*e*, fl*iuch*](G600030/app538.html) do rer naduir an aeir; Cannsir, Scoirpio, Pisis f*uar* fl*iuch* da rer naduir an uisci. Et aderaid co fuil cuit do na comartaib sin sogluaisti & cuid [daingin](G600030/app539.html) dogluaisti & cuid nemneachtardha. Et aderaid co fuil cuid aca feram*ail* & cuid [mnaam*ail*](G600030/app540.html) & cuid solus & cuit dorcha. Agus adeir*aid* co fuil cuit maith do na plainedaib & cuit olc & go fuil [blodh](G600030/app541.html) dib [co](G600030/app542.html) soirb imcub*aid* da dainib maithi & blodh [co](G600030/app543.html) doirb cle donaidhi da drochdainib. Et aderaid aris muna bedh an grian 'na sustaint fein te ni dingnad si na gnimarta [teasbaid](G600030/app544.html) dacimid is na neicibh tal*manda*, oir is cert inann [gnimhartha](G600030/app545.html) dani isna neithibh tal*manda* & dani an tene, noc ata t*e* 'na sustaint fein .i. losgadh & tirmud & d*ub*adh.


Et ader*aid* aris muna beth an re fl*iuch* ann fein nac [oibreocad](G600030/app546.html) fl*iche* is na neicib tal*manda*. Et aderm*id*-ni 'na ag*aid* sin gorab secranach ealadhan an baram*ail* sin & gorab breg hi & aderim nac fuilit comartada na [firmaminti](G600030/app547.html) *fl*iuch** na t*e* na f*uar* na [tir*im*](G600030/app548.html) na maith na saith, gidhedh as as a ceangal fein re celi & as a sibal oibr*ig*id siat na caili sin [gin co fuilid innta fein](G600030/app549.html) isna netib tal*manda*, oir is a h-en t-sustaint & a h-en [adhbhur](G600030/app550.html) da rinneadh iat uili & foillseochamaid so nis grinne na [mar](G600030/app551.html) so 'na deadhaidh so.




---

p.72


Sciendum est etcetera.
----------------------


.i. As follus nach as a [bl*as*annaib](G600030/app552.html) na as a m-bl*ath*aib athainter [naduiri](G600030/app553.html) na corp nadurtha, oir da madh as a [n-dathannaib da h-athontaidh](G600030/app554.html) iat da bedh en naduir ag na corpaibh g*eal*a uile & gach uili ni da madh inann dath no [bl*as*](G600030/app555.html) as den naduir da beidis, oir dachiamaid gorab en dath ata ag an t-snechta & ac [puisdian](G600030/app556.html) & ac an caisi ur gidedh as naduir ar leith ata a gac ni dibh. Et dacimit aris, ge tic [apium & alues](G600030/app557.html) le cele da rer a serui, ni h-inann naduir doib oir ata ni acu te & ni ele f*uar* & is mar sin aderm*id* don bol*ad*. Ma sedh ni as a [n-*d*athannaib na as a m-bl*as*anaibh](G600030/app558.html) na as a [m-boll*ad*aib](G600030/app559.html) na as a n-glaccad atainter naduir na corp nadurtha ach [as a n-inadaib & as a n-gluasachtaib](G600030/app560.html) . Et aderaid na h-aineolaidh go cl*aech*l*ig*ter an firmamint na rannaib no innti fein uili re h-aimsir fada, gin co fuil an cl*aech*l*od* sin co follus duinne mar dacimid an t-or & an t-iarann & an corp & iacingctis & moran [do](G600030/app561.html) cl*oc*aib uaisli ele, da dergadh re n-arsud & re faidi a n-aimsiri, [a](G600030/app562.html) meid & a [n-datanna](G600030/app563.html) & [a m-blas & a m-balad](G600030/app564.html) da claechlod doib le fad [a n-aimsiri](G600030/app565.html) gin co follus duinni an claechlod sin ca denamh tri rofad na h-aimsiri ana n-dentar e.


Adeirmid-ne riusan ac fregra doib [co n-gabann](G600030/app566.html) cac uili ni ata [fan escu a speir](G600030/app567.html) na ceithre dula claechlod cuige; & atait da gne ac an claechlod sin .i. claechlod uili & claechlod [rann](G600030/app568.html) & is a timcill fasta & truaill*igti* atait an da claechlodh sin & is [folluse](G600030/app569.html) an claechlod uili na'n claechlod rann. Et gach uili corp 


---

p.74




cl*aech*l*ig*ter ann [is na cainndigecht no na cailidecht bis an claechlodh sin](G600030/app570.html) & as iat gnimharta an cuirp foill*sig*es an claechlod sin duinne; oir an tan daniter sl*an* don corp easl*an* & [easlan](G600030/app571.html) don corp slan as iat gnimartha an cuirp sin foll*sig*es an [claechlod](G600030/app572.html) sin duinne. [Et mar sin an trat doni edrom don corp trom, as iat gnimartha an cuirp cedna foill*sig*es an claechlod sin duine](G600030/app573.html) . Et mar sin an trat doniter luath don corp amhluath no amluath don corp luath, as e luas no amluas an cuirp sin foill*sig*es an gluasacht sin [duinne](G600030/app574.html) .


As mar sin, da medaithi no da laigdithi an firmamint, d'foill*seoch*adh a gnimharta an claechlod sin duinn. Oir in trat do medocaidh & da [fairsingeochtai](G600030/app575.html) hi & do [cuirfithi](G600030/app576.html) na h-airdrinnaidh ni budh [faidi](G600030/app577.html) uainn na mar atait siat, as lugha an cainndigecht 
dacithfimis acu [sin](G600030/app578.html) annsin [na mar dacimit anois](G600030/app579.html) . Agus ata moran acu dacimid anois nach [foicfimis](G600030/app580.html) fon taca sin,
& mar sin an trat da [cumhgochaidhi](G600030/app581.html) a timceall na talman, da badh [aibsidhi linn](G600030/app582.html) cainndigecht na n-airdrinnach fon taca sin na anois & dacithfimis annsin moran da retlannaib nach facamar roimhe. Ma sedh o nach facaid neach riamh na cl*aech*l*ig*the sin isin firmamint, [oir](G600030/app583.html) da faicedh [dagebtai](G600030/app584.html) scribtha e, as dearb & as deimin nach medaigt*er* & nac laidhdit*er* & nach [cumgaigter](G600030/app585.html) & nac [fairsingigter](G600030/app586.html) an firmamint.


Et mar sin da claenadh an firmamint da leth deis no da [leth](G600030/app587.html) cle no roime no 'na diaid no da n-*d*ecadh sis no suas as in inad ana fuil da badh egin co n-atrocadh [an](G600030/app588.html) seantrom le .i., an talam, gidedh ni fedann an talam a inadh fein d'facbail oir ni fuil [aici](G600030/app589.html) inadh a racadh, 


---

p.76




oir gach inadh an a timceall, ata[9](javascript:footNote('G600030/note009.html')) lan do corpaib eli & o nac fedann da corp beit ar aen t-slidhi a n-en inadh, ni fedann an talam a h-inad fein d'fagail da dul fare corp eli & is mar sin is egin don firmamint beith 'na sir comhnaidhe co dogluaisti docl*aech*l*ighti* a timcill na talman tri bithu sir. Et da [n-abartaidh](G600030/app590.html) gorab o anmainne no o [dombisec](G600030/app591.html) [a](G600030/app592.html) cuirp da [tigemad](G600030/app593.html) cl*aech*l*od* na firmaminti, mar anmainnigter corp an duine on eslaini, as mar sin da h-anmainneoctaig gluasacht na firmaminti mar daniter [sibal](G600030/app594.html) an duine esl*ain* & is mar sin da [cl*aech*lod*faidis*](G600030/app595.html) na h-uaire & na h-aimsera, ni nach tarrla ann riamh, oir is en cursa da bi acu riamh & [aniudh](G600030/app596.html) & bias co brach. Ma sedh o nac claechligter sustaint na cainndighecht na cailidheacht na inadh na gluasacht [na](G600030/app597.html) aimser na firmaminti, na eirghi na dul [fai](G600030/app598.html) na [folach](G600030/app599.html) na foill*siugad* airdrinnac & nac dernadh riam & nac [dinnginter](G600030/app600.html) co brach, is egin gurub en modh daingin doscailti da bhi aice & ata & bias an comfad bus ail les in te da crutaigh [hi](G600030/app601.html) & gorab naduir ele ata [aici](G600030/app602.html) a naduir na ceithre dula.


Qui perfecte circulos liniasque etcetera.
-----------------------------------------


Gibe neach da ticfad co foirfi cercalla & linedha & [puinc](G600030/app603.html) na firmaminti [da thicfad](G600030/app604.html) gan cunntabart naduir na firmaminti co h-uili, & is amlaid is coir a ticsin, a h-imaidh & [cruth](G600030/app605.html) [mar](G600030/app606.html) ata si innte fein da smuaintiug*ad* & da cuma ad resun & at intinn co grinn dan taib astigh. Et as amlaid ata [suig*iugad*](G600030/app607.html) ced cercaille na firmaminti, [on](G600030/app608.html) ponc oircercach conuic an ponc medonac uachtarach as [cinn](G600030/app609.html) talman & as sin [co roith](G600030/app610.html) an ponc iartharach & as sin co nuic an ponc medonac ichtarach fo talamh & as sin aris conuic an ponc 


---

p.78


[oircearrach](G600030/app611.html) or tinnscain si ar tus & as e ainm [na cercailli](G600030/app612.html) sin .i. orientalis & occidentalis .i. an cercaill oirrcerac no an cercall iartarach & ainm eli daber*ar* uirre .i. cercall an line diridh, oir in trat teit an grian sa line n-direc sin, bith la & aithi comtrom a cricaibh an domain uili. Agus is ann suigiter an dara cercall, o ponc poil Airtic co ponc [uachtairaid](G600030/app613.html) na firmaminti & as sin co [ponc poil Antartic & as sin co ponc](G600030/app614.html) medon ichtair na firmaminti fa thalmain & as sin co ponc poil Artic as ar tinnscainn roimhe. Et ataid tri h-anmanna ele dab*er*id na feall*samain* ar in cercall so .i. [Septrintrionalis](G600030/app615.html) , Auustralis & Meridionalis .i. an cercall tuaiscertac non cercall [deiscertac](G600030/app616.html) no cercall [an](G600030/app617.html) medon lae. Et as e suid*iugadh* an tres cercaill, o ponc oirrcerach na firmaminti co ponc poil Antairtic & as sin co ponc iar*tair* na firmaminti & as sin co ponc poil Artic & as [sin](G600030/app618.html) co ponc oirrcir na firmaminti. Et is e as ainm don cercall so, circalus [termenorum](G600030/app619.html) no circalus signorum .i. cercall na termine no c*er*c*all* na [comartadh](G600030/app620.html) .


Et is e so suig*iugad* an ced line da tri [linadhaib](G600030/app621.html) na firmaminti o ponc oircerach na firmaminte tri ponc medhonach na talman co ponc [iartarach](G600030/app622.html) na firmaminti. An dara line o ponc mhedon uachtair na firmaminti as cinn na talman tri ponc mhedonac na talman co ponc [medon ichtair na firmaminti fo talmain](G600030/app623.html) . An treas line o pol Airtic tri ponc medonac na talman co ponc poil Intartic.


Et is iat so secht p*uinc* na firmaminti, a se dib isna se h-inadhaibh a tiagait na tri [cercalla](G600030/app624.html) [adubrumar](G600030/app625.html) tar a ceili & a na fuilit se cinn na tri [linadh](G600030/app626.html) adubrumar. Et an seachtmad ponc [.i.](G600030/app627.html) seantrom na talman noch ala 'na sentrom ag an doman uili.


Ee is e inadh a na fuil an ced ponc dib sin, a n-oirrcer 


---

p.80




na firmaminti isin inadh a teit circalus terminorum & circalus orientalis no occidentalis tar a ceili. An dara ponc a medon uachtair na firmaminti as cinn talman insan inad a tet circalus orientalis no occidentalis & circalus Septrimtrionalis no Australis tar a ceili. An treas ponc a n-iartar na firmaminti isin inadh a teit circalus orientalis no occidentalis & circalus terminorum tar a ceili. An ceathramad ponc a medon ichtar na firmaminti fai talmain as in inadh a teit circalus [Septremtrionalis](G600030/app628.html) no [Au*s*tralis](G600030/app629.html) no circulus orientalis no occidentalis tar a ceili. An cuigmed p*onc* a tuaiscert na firmaminti is in inadh a teit circalus septremtrionalis no Au*s*tralis & circalus terminorum tar a celi. An *seiseadh* ponc, a n-deiscert na firmaminti isin inadh a teit circalus terminorum & circalus septremtrionalis no Australis tar a celi. An sechtmad p*onc* mar adubrumar seantrom na talman noch ata 'na seantrom ag an doman uili a na tiagait na tri linadha [adubrumar](G600030/app630.html) trit a ceili & is e sin suigh*iugad* & tuarascbail na tri c*er*c*all* & na tri linadh & na secht p*onc*, noc adubrumar tuas. Gibe neach da ticfad iat co forfi co tuicfead se naduir na firmaminti uili.


[Dexamlacht ergi & dul fai na greine a moran da cricaib](G600030/app631.html) .
-


### Sol prius **Babilone** quam **Egifto** etcetera.


As tusca eirghes an grian don **Uaibileoin** na don **Eghift** & don **Egift** na do*n* v-**Frainc**. Et mar sin as tusca teit si fai don **Babileoin** na don **Eigift** & is tusca don **Eighift** na do*n* v-**Frainc**. Et da cur so a ceill co follus, cuirfad na tri cricha so mar eisimplair ar eirgi & dol fai na greine da cricaib ele an domain a fidair iomitrice, acht as ed is ail lium b*eth* sbas se n-uaire d'aimsir idir an m-**Baibileoin** & in **Eigift** & atorra sin aris & in **Frainc** & mar sin idir na cricaib eli & da 


---

p.82




gen da eisi sin cercall cruinn a n-imdenam na talman & cercall as mo na sin [dan taib amuith de](G600030/app632.html) amail cercall na greine & cuirfed a n-inadh na **Bauileoine** A [litir](G600030/app633.html) & a n-inadh na h-**Eighifti** B & a n-inad [na h-**Afraici**](G600030/app634.html) C & scribocad a n-eirghi greine na **Baibileoine** D & 'na medon lae E & a n-dul fai na greine F & mar sin a n-eirghi greini na h-**Eigifti** B & 'na medon lae F & a n-dul fai na greine G & mar sin aris a n-eirghe greine na h-**Afraice** F & 'na medon lae G & a n-dul fai na greine D.


Et mar sin aderim an trat eirghes gri*an* a ponc [D](G600030/app635.html) foills*ig*ter da lucht na **Baibileoine** i & folaiter ar luct na h-**Eigifti** no co tic [si](G600030/app636.html) co ponc E noc ata 'na medon lae sa **Baibileoin** & 'na eirgi greine ac an **Eighift** & 'na medon aithi ac an [**Afric**](G600030/app637.html) , oir as annsin eirges an grian do na h-**Egiftecaib** & gidedh ni follus da lucht na h-**Africi** i no co soitinn si ponc F noc ata 'na deredh lae [annsa](G600030/app638.html) **Baibileoin** & 'na medon lae ag an **Eigift** & 'na eirgi greine ac an **Afric**, oir is annsin tinnscnus la do h-**Africeacaib** & 'na deredh lae ac na h-**Eigifticaibh** & 'na medon aithi ac an **Baibileoncaib**. Dacit na h-**Africid** hi no co soitinn si p*onc* D noc ata 'na deredh lae acu & 'na medon [aiti](G600030/app639.html) ag an **Eighift** & 'na tosac lae ac an **Baibileoin**, & is mar sin is a n-en ponc ata tosac lae na **Baibileoine** & medon [aithi](G600030/app640.html) na h-**Eighifti** & dered lae na h-**Africe**. Et a n-en p*onc* eli ata tosac lae na h-**Eighifti** & medon lae na **Baibileoine** & medon [aiti](G600030/app641.html) na h-**Africi**. Et mar sin as a n-en ponc ata tosach lae na h-**Afraici** & medon lae na h-**Eigifti** & deredh lae na **Baibileoine**. Et mar sin aris as a n-en ponc ata medon lae na h-**Afraici** & deredh lae na **Eighifti** & medon aithi na **Baibileoine**.


Et mar sin da rer [ordaithe](G600030/app642.html) De, an trat eirgis grian da cric egin isin doman, teit fa da cric eli & is e 


---

p.84




cruinne na talman doni an examlacht sin da dhul fai & d'eirghi na greine annsa doman.


Et as i so [this](G600030/app643.html) an fidair [da geallamar thuas da denamh.](G600030/app644.html) 


![to face p. 84 (1)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face84.gif)


[Do med na greini](G600030/app645.html) .
-


### [Raciones](G600030/app646.html) geometrice etcetera.


.i. Derbaid resuin iomitrici **Tolimeus** [astrolaic](G600030/app647.html) med na greine. Et adeir gorab egin [cainndigacht](G600030/app648.html) na greine da beth comtrom no nis luda [no nis mo](G600030/app649.html) re cainndigacht na talman; & da madh comtrom da beit grian & talam, da rachadh scail na talman .i. an [aitchi](G600030/app650.html) , coimhletan risin talmain fein amac co speir na n-airdrinnach n-daingin & da mucfad si iat. Et da [tigemad](G600030/app651.html) eclipsis .i. easbaidh soluis [don](G600030/app652.html) re, gac en mi trit an m-bl*iadain* amach, oir da boinfedh cainndigecht na talman noc de beth co mor re cainndigecht cuirp na greine[10](javascript:footNote('G600030/note010.html')) solus na greine don re & do na h-airdrinnacaib [&](G600030/app653.html) mar sin ni beit gealach co brac ann ac dorcadus siraidhi o tosach na [haiti](G600030/app654.html) conuic a deredh. Ma sedh o bis an g*eal*ac ann & daciter na h-airdrinnaich co solus is in aithi, tuicter as so nac comtrom an grian & in talam re ceili.


Agus da [chur](G600030/app655.html) a cell co follus [daghen fidhair tri cerc*aill*](G600030/app656.html) a timcill a celi .i. an cercall [leitimill*ech*](G600030/app657.html) amail cercall na n-airdrinna*c* n-daingin, & an cercall medonac mar cercall na greine, & an cercall as lugha mar cercall an re & an talam ar a lar & in grian fon talmain this 'na speir fein, coimlethan ris an talmain & scaile na talmain ar comair na greine don taeb eli don [talman,](G600030/app658.html) coimlethan ris an talmain, ac dul amach co sp*eir* na n-airdrinnach co direach.


![to face p. 84 (2)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face84_2.gif)




---

p.86


[cainnditatis](G600030/app659.html) Si autem sol minoris esset etcetera.
------------------------------------


.i. Da madh lugha cainndigecht na greine na na talman, gac uili ni do ceadaithe [dofulaingi adubrumar](G600030/app660.html) & tuilled leo, da [tegemaddais](G600030/app661.html) ann, oir da bet scaile na talman ac sir fas ar meid & [ar lethead](G600030/app662.html) on talmain amach co speir na n-airdrinnach & da dhorcochadh se an cuid budh mho acu & da [tegemad](G600030/app663.html) eclipsis do na plainedaibh is gac en mi & da bedh eclipsis an re, mar adubrumar, ar bun re fedh na h-aithi [co maidin](G600030/app664.html) . Ma sedh o nac facamar an í so riamh & o nac cualamar & o nac fuaramar scriobtha as egin nac lugha cainndigecht na greine na [caindigecht](G600030/app665.html) na talman. [Et foill*sigidh* an fidair so tis an radh so ad*er*maid](G600030/app666.html) .


[Nissisario idhitur](G600030/app667.html)  fadentum est.
--------------


Is egin a admhail gorab mo caindigecht na greine na na talman & nach ted sgali na talman tar speir Mercuir suas [chaithi](G600030/app668.html) & is ar cuma speiri ata sgail*i* na talman .i. an chuid lethan risin talman & se ag dul a n-giri tar es a chele no go [taire](G600030/app669.html) becan don taibh thuas do speir an re. [Et is e in sgaili cedna dorcaidhes an re](G600030/app670.html) do rer mar beris se air, oir an trath bis an re a n-desgeart no a tuaisgeart an sgail*i*, an chuid ar a m-bi se don re dorcaig*id* se e & an trath b*er*is se ar a leth [dorchaig*id*](G600030/app671.html) se uile e. Et gidhed ata a fis againne & fuaramar sgribtha nac soitheann an sgaili sin na talman na h-airdrennaidh na en plain*ed* do na pl*ain*edaibh ach an re amhain, noc ata na comursain ag an talmain & is ime sin bid na plain*eid* uili a n-egm*uis* an re & na [hairdrennaidh](G600030/app672.html) tri bithu sir solus on grein & is as sin derbas gorab mo an grian na an talam da mhoran mar foillsighes [an fidair so this](G600030/app673.html) .


![to face p. 86](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face86.gif)




---

p.88


[Luna nicel luminis abet nisi](G600030/app674.html)  etcetera.
----------


Ni fuil en red solus isin re acht mar ghabus on grein & as amlaid ataid ar aen comtrom mar sam*ail* liathroidi cruindi, oir da madh na claraibh [lethna](G600030/app675.html) do bedis, [amail adobradar na h-aineolaigh, an trath do bedis](G600030/app676.html) a n-oirrcer no a n-iarrtar na firma*min*ti ni faicfithi dibh acht a m-buird & gidhedh docithfithi iad uili a mullach na firmaminti. Ma sed o nach [folluse](G600030/app677.html) dociter cruinn iat a mullach na firmaminti na an gach inadh eli acu sin tuicter gorab cruinn ataid fein & nach lethan. Et [an cuid cruind ut dacimid](G600030/app678.html) a gac aen dib ni fuil ann [acht](G600030/app679.html) emisperium .i. letspeir & an let eli gan fhaicsin. As mar sin is follus gorab corp cruinn ata ag an grein & ac an esca & ac na plainedaibh & ac na h-airdrinnachaibh uile, oir gebe taeb da faicter iat as cruinn daciter iat.


Et mar adubramar, [ni fuil solus on a naduir fein ag an re](G600030/app680.html) & as amlaid [ata](G600030/app681.html) dorcha slighaithe [amail iarann iar na glan*adh*](G600030/app682.html) , & in med da solus bhis aigi as on grein gabus & as i a speir an speir is foicsi don talmain idir na [corpaibh](G600030/app683.html) nemdha & speir na greine an ceathramad os a cinn. Agus gidh fada o ceili iat an trat bis an re fai an grein co direc an en ceim [re](G600030/app684.html) , is annsin soills*ig*es si an leth uachtarach don re & bigh an let laimh rinne dorca & as annsin as lan re dorca againne. Et as ime sin nach [faicmid](G600030/app685.html) isin aimsir sin en red don re.


Et an trath fagas an re an ceim direc sin a m-bi se fon n-grein & [snaidhes](G600030/app686.html) tar eis a ceile uaite sair [snamaidh](G600030/app687.html) [an solus](G600030/app688.html) mar sin deis a ceili [siar](G600030/app689.html) .


An solus ghabhus an cuid uachtarach de on grein [soill*sig*id](G600030/app690.html) an bord ictarach de & is annsin bis an re ar a primh .i. ar a ced solus laimh rinne, oir [as i sin](G600030/app691.html) ced cuairt dacimid e & gach [faidi da cumscaidinn sair](G600030/app692.html) on 


---

p.90




grein as moidi timceallas solus na codac thuas de anuas & gac fad sair teit on grein as moidi biseac a soluis tiar & doni bisec a dhorchadais toir co nuigh a ceithre deg, oir is annsin as [rofaidi](G600030/app693.html) on grein e & bis co direc ar a comair don taib eli don talmain & is [annsin](G600030/app694.html) bis an t-emisperium as foicsi dan talmain dhe solus uili & in t-emesperium uachtarach dorcha uili. Et mar sin ni [bi](G600030/app695.html) chaithi gan a leth dorcha & a leth solas gibe sl*ige* a n-gabann.


Et an trat claenas an re o diameiter na greine siar .i. on line direc a m-binn don taib ele don talmain ar comair na greine, [impoid](G600030/app696.html) solus [an re](G600030/app697.html) laimh rinne suas tar eis a ceili & in med soill*sig*ter don bord [ichtarach](G600030/app698.html) ar a primh as i an med sin dorcaidter don cuid soir de ar a guin. Et mar sin an med soillsigter de gach n-en aithi co ceann a ceithre deg as i in [medi](G600030/app699.html) sin dorcaidter dhe gach n-en aithi co deredh a mis no co m-bi co direach [fon](G600030/app700.html) grein a n-en ceim [ria](G600030/app701.html) , aturra & in talam, & is annsin bis an let bis rinne don re dorcha & an leth suas solus & da cur so a ceill co follus dagen fidair annso this a cuireab an grian fo let taeb na [talman](G600030/app702.html) don taebh tiar & in re da ceim deg becan os cinn na talman uaithi sair & scribocad dorca uili e ac an bord iartarach is foicse don grein de, noch foilt*sig*es e [da beth](G600030/app703.html) ar a prim.


![to face p. 90](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face90.gif)


Dagen aris fidhair eli a cuireabh an re a mullac a speiri fein a cinn an sechtmad la don mhi & a leth solus & a let dorcha & cuirfed an grian fo leth taib na talman don taib tiar.


![to face p. 90 (2)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face90_2.gif)


Dagen aris an treas fidair [a cuireabh](G600030/app704.html) [11](javascript:footNote('G600030/note011.html')) an re toir co direac & a let uachtarach dorcha & a leth ichtarach, ata ar comair na greine & na talman, solus. Et cuirfad an grian an uair sin tar eis dul fai di fo [let taib](G600030/app705.html) na talman &rl. [Et ac so thall an fidair fein.](G600030/app706.html) 




---

p.92


Daden aris an ceathramad fidair & scribochad an leth[12](javascript:footNote('G600030/note012.html')) is foicsi don talmain don re solus & an leth eli dorca am*ail* bis an re annsa [*deichmad* (?) la](G600030/app707.html) don mhi & cuirfed e mar sin thoir co direc & an grian a medon ichtair na talman co direac.


Daden da eise sin an cuigeadh fidair [a cuireab](G600030/app708.html) an re a mullach a cercaille fein a n-en ceim risin n-grein & scribocad an leath suas solus de & an leth anuas dorcha. [Et ac so an fidhair don taib amuith don leth ele](G600030/app709.html) .


![to face p. 92](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face92.gif)


[Da cuis eclipsis an re](G600030/app710.html) .
-


### Postquam argumentis etcetera.


.i. Tar eis a derbtha duinn [d'arrmainntibh](G600030/app711.html) egintaca & d'fidracaib [geomitreachta](G600030/app712.html) gorab on grein soill*sig*ter an re & na h-airdrinnacidh uili, foillseocamaid anois cad o tic dorcadus nadurtha ar in re re n-ab*arthar* eclipsis. Agus aderm*aid* d'innsaidhi an adbhur sin, os on n-grein gabus an re a solus & nac fuil ni ele ann da boinfed an solus sin de ac an talman, gorab e scaili na talman, bis co direc idir an grein & in re, tet a dimcill an re & benas solus na greine dhe & is e an dorcug*ad* sin an re o scaile na talman is eclipsis ann. Agus teagmaidh se co [nemmeallta](G600030/app713.html) an gach en mi caithi oir gac uair tecmas an re do ceann no derball na Dreaguine, curtar annsa line n-direc e ar cert [comair](G600030/app714.html) na greine & na talman & tollaidh se co cert scaili na talman & dorchaidter uili e. Et an trath gluaisis an re da deiscert no do tuaiscert an scaili sin, seachnaidh se an t-eclipsis uile & gibe taeb dib sin a m-baininn se ris an scaili sin, [an med](G600030/app715.html) bis fai an scaili de, as i an meidi sin bhis d'eclipsis eir sin.


Agus is ime sin ata da gne d'eclipsis ann .i. eclipsis uneuersalis .i. eclipsis coitcinn & eclipsis particularis .i. eclipsis rannaighi. Agus is uime sin nach inann aimser 


---

p.94




a tinnscnann se a n-gach en inadh & nach inann cainndighacht do an gac inadh oir ni h-inann med do [toir & tiar](G600030/app716.html) & ni mo [is inand](G600030/app717.html) a n-deiscert [an domain](G600030/app718.html) na 'na tuaiscert. As uime sin, [ni](G600030/app719.html) h-inann dacit na daine e a cricaib an domuin. Agus an buidhin ar a n-eirginn la, ni facid siat e ge [dobedh](G600030/app720.html) se san uair sin ann do rer naduir. Et 'na diaigh so aderam d'eclipsis na greine 'na inadh fein.


Eclipsis na plained ele. As plained acu fein as cuis d'eclipsis na plained ele, oir is e an plained as isli dorchaides an plained is airdi. Et ar i*n* nos cedna, as e an re dorcaidhes [iat uili uair ele fa sec](G600030/app721.html) . Da cur a n-dob*ar*t [a cell ar eclipsis nis mo](G600030/app722.html) dogen fidair gheomitric annso tis as a ticfither an t-eclipsis co follus.


![to face p. 94](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face94.gif)


Manifestum est etcetera.
------------------------


.i. As follus mar adubramar solus na n-airdrinnach uili da [teacht](G600030/app723.html) on grein & a m-beit comcruinn [mar](G600030/app724.html) liatroid amail ata grian & esca & is i cuis um nac follus a cruinne mar as follus cruinne na deise ele sin .i. a m-beit uili don taib thuas don grein a fad uainn a n-egmus Uenir & Mercuir. Agus soillsigter leath gach [en](G600030/app725.html) retlainne ata don taib thuas don grein uaithi fein, gibe inadh a m-bid na retlanna sin na cercaill fein .i. [mas](G600030/app726.html) a n-en ceim re grein na mas a fad uaithe no mas a fogus di no roimpi no 'na diaigh, as uaithe sin gabaid uili solus. Et gach uair bis ceachtar do na tri [plainedaib](G600030/app727.html) ata os cinn na greine ar a comair co direac as ann as aibsidhi a solus ar comair na talman ar da cuisib. An ced cuis [acu](G600030/app728.html) an duine bis a n-dorcadus, as [aibsidhidi](G600030/app729.html) leis an solus daci se don taib amuit don dorcadus na leisin duine bis annsa solus fein & is uime sin, an duine bis a scaili [tiudh](G600030/app730.html) dorcha na talman annsan aithi, ag fecain [uadha](G600030/app731.html) na plained 


---

p.96




bis ar comair na greine co direc, is aibseach leis an solus tre mhed an dorcadais bis 'na thimceall fein. Cuis ele, an tan curtar ceachtar do na plainedaib co direc ar com*air* na greine is egin di impod na cercaill fein tar a h-ais & is [aibhsididi a solus](G600030/app732.html) an t-impodh sin oir is [foicsidi](G600030/app733.html) da talmain hi & ni tecmann so co brac is na pl*ained*aibh bis don taibh tuas don grein.


Agus [na p*lain*eda](G600030/app734.html) ata fai [grein](G600030/app735.html) .i. Mercuir & Uenir, ni roitit siat co brach ar comair na greine & ni roitit an en cuil do na ceithre [cuilib](G600030/app736.html) & ni hedh bid ac laim ria co brat, roimpi no 'na diaigh & gach foicsi [bid](G600030/app737.html) don grein as lugaide a solus, & gach fad uaithi bid as moidi a solus.


Solus *uero* na plained teit ar comair na greine, bit ac fas [caithi](G600030/app738.html) tar eis a ceili conuic an inadh tar nac fedaid dul & inab egin doib impodh d'innsaighi na greine aris & as annsan [impoidh](G600030/app739.html) sin [bith](G600030/app740.html) a sholus san ar dombisec no co m-bit siat ar en ceim risin grein fuithe & annsin bith an leth as foicsi don grein dibh solus & in leth ele dorcha, mar adubrumar don re, an trat bis a n-en ceim re grein, oir ni faicter e co brac acht an tan bis da ceim deg a [neach](G600030/app741.html) as luda da taib egin don grein .i. ar a prim no ar a firderedh.


Agus is e an modh cedna ata ac na plainedaib sin oir [an trath bid siad toir da c*eim* deg roim in grein ag impod cum na greine no](G600030/app742.html) an trat [bid](G600030/app743.html) da ceim deg don taibh thiar don grein ar sibhal, dacitar adharcach iat ar cuma an re [nua](G600030/app744.html) ; & an trat tiaghait on grein mar nac fedaid dul nis faidi, bith a lan solus acu. Gidedh ni follus an cl*aech*l*od* sin duinne [mar as edh cl*aech*l*od*](G600030/app745.html) sholus an re oir is faidi da moran uainn [iad](G600030/app746.html) na an re & as uime sin an trat is mor a solus as bec a toirt ar a fad uainn. Et an tran is foicsi bid don talamh daciter an lasair 


---

p.98




eirghes dib uair fada & uair gerr & uair ceithreuilinnach da rer chuma a cirp. Et an uair is faidi bid o talmain ni mar sin daciter an lasair cedna acht comcruinn, mar bis an tene a fad uait, gibe cuma [bis ar in lasair](G600030/app747.html) innte fein, cael no fada no letan no gerr & ni mar sin daciter hi a fad uait ach comcruinn.


Et ac so [this](G600030/app748.html) an fidair inneosas co follus cinnus soill*sig*es an grian na h-airdrinnaidh uili a n-egmus na pl*ained*, & foill*sigid* ciall na fidrach so nac fuil inadh is in doman [gan beth deallraigteach](G600030/app749.html) solus on grein.


![to face p. 98 (1)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face98_1.gif)


Daghen aris an dara fidhair da foill*siugad* cinnus th-soillsighter Uenir & Mercuir noch ata fai grein uaithe & cinnus tiaghaid siat ar en ceim re grein mar as foicse [fedaid dul di](G600030/app750.html) .


Daghen aris an treas fidhair andso da chur a ceill nis mho na mar [so](G600030/app751.html) mar [shoillsithter](G600030/app752.html) Uenir & Mercuir o grein & cuirfead iat an oirrcir a cercaille as cinn na talmhan innus nac fedaid dul nis faidi [on](G600030/app753.html) grein [na mar bid mochrach roimpi](G600030/app754.html) .


![to face p. 98 (2 and 3)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face98_2_3.gif)


Dagen anois an cethramad fidair da foill*siugad* nis mho cinnus gabhaid [a](G600030/app755.html) solus & cuirfead iat dan leith thiar dan speir [os cinn](G600030/app756.html) na talmhan isin fhad as [mo](G600030/app757.html) fedaid dul on grein .i. isin inadh a m-bid a leanmhain a n-uair easparta.




---

p.100


[quasam](G600030/app758.html) Dico quod Luna Soli eclipsis etcetera.
--------------------------------------


.i. Aderim gorab e an re [as cuis d'eclipsis na greine](G600030/app759.html) oir as i a speir [speir](G600030/app760.html) as [ichtaraighe](G600030/app761.html) sis do na speirib nemda & as si speir na greine an cethramad speir don taib tuas de sin & mar sin gach sibal dani as fai grein bhis. Et an uair tecmas se a cinn no a n-earball na Dreaguine a n-en ceim co direach ris in n-grein gan claenad da deiscert na da tuaiscert, boinid solus na gr*eine* dinne & is e an dorcadus sin as eclipsis ann. An trat *cheana* claenas da let deis no cli & nac sibhlaiginn co direch a ceann no a n-earball na Dreaguine fa grein a n-en ceim re secnaidh annsin eclipsis da tuismeadh. Et as e corp an re an docardus so daciter sa grein an uair eclipsis do beith ann, ma sedh as follus nac tic eclipsis [ann co brach](G600030/app762.html) acht an trat bis an re fon grein co direach a n-en ceim re & is annsa leth tiar da grein tinnscnas se co brac & thoir crichnaiges. Et an trat siblaighes an re dan taibh amuith dan ceim direach sin na greine dorcaidh, uair ann, cuid don grein orainn. Et as ime sin atait da ghne ag eclipsis na greine mar ata ac eclipsis an re .i. eclipsis uili & eclipsis ran*naighi*.


Et da rer [examlacht na crich bit](G600030/app763.html) an t-eclipsis co h-egsam*ail* [inntu](G600030/app764.html) , [oir an trat bis ecl*ipsis* ann ni comtrom daciter e an gach cric](G600030/app765.html) oir ata cric a faicter e & cric nach faicter & crich a faicter nis mo & cric a faicter nis lugha amail ata so; .i. da m-bedh an grian is an line direach os ar cinn an airdi & an re is in l*ine* cedna fuithi [da badh](G600030/app766.html) egin eclip*sis* ann duinne. Et da m-bedh neach is an uair cedna a n-oirrcer an domuin & e ac fecain na greine, [dacitfedh](G600030/app767.html) , dar leis, hi an iartar an dom*ain*. Et da m-bedh nec ele isin uair cedna a n-iartar an domain ac fecain na greine, dacithfedh se, dar leis, hi 


---

p.102




a n-oirrcer in domain; gihedh ni faicinn ceachtar acu ecl*ipsis* na greine, oir da rachadh radharc gac neac acu co direc idir an grein & in re & mar sin ni boinfedh an re, ge da bedh se isin line direc fa grein ar a fad san on line sin na en corp [dorcha,](G600030/app768.html) solus na gre*ine* dib. Et an [pinnsi](G600030/app769.html) a n-dorcaiter an grian mar sin daciter innti sa lo na h-airdrinnaig le med an dorcadais.


Et as girra beris as eclipsis na greine na eclipsis an re le na luas ar aen ac dul tar a ceili & ni mar sin ata eclipsis an re [noch](G600030/app770.html) thic on talmain, ni bhi 'ga chur as ach sibal an re 'na aenur & in talam 'na comhnaighe.


Et gibe neach da ticfadh in ar n-ag*aid* annso & [aderadh](G600030/app771.html) na budh e an re bud cuis d'eclipsis na greine & da mud e mar adubrumar, na budh chora do san eclip*sis* da dhenamh na da Uenir & da Mercuir an trat bid sa line direc fai grein. Et as do sin freagramaid, oir an trat bis Uenir & Mercuir fai grein a n-en ceim re as ar fad bis, gidedh as annsin teit uaithe a meid & a [letead](G600030/app772.html) & is minic theagmas an i cedna don re oir bi fai grein co minic a n-en ceim ria ar fad & gidhed bith a fad uaithe ar lethed.


[Amail](G600030/app773.html) nach tic ecl*ipsis* na greine o na retlannaib as ludha corp na'n re & is foicsi dhi, oir an trat curtar corp bec fa corp mhor a fogus do, gach foicsi da [m-bi](G600030/app774.html) do as lughaidi [fhoilghis](G600030/app775.html) de, & trat curtar a fad on corp mor e & a fogus don radharc [bis ac a fecain araen, gach fad doteit on corp mor & gach foicsi dateit don radharc](G600030/app776.html) , is moidi [foilghes](G600030/app777.html) an corp mor, innas gorab mar sin co foileocadh uball fiadain corp na greine ar in radarc.


Et da cur so a ceill dagen fidair annso tis [a n-dingean](G600030/app778.html)


---

p.104




cercall mor amail cercall na greine & cuirfed an grian na 'mullach tuas & dagen cercall ele don leth istigh di sin am*ail* cercall an re & cuirfed an re fein 'na mullach thuas annsa line direc fa grein & dagen an tres cercall don taibh astigh di sin ar cuma na talman & [cuirfed](G600030/app779.html) E litir 'na seantrom & saimeolad e risin inadh sa talmain as a faicid na daine an grian & cuir*fed* A a n-oirrcer & cuirfed B a n-iartar sp*eiri* na gr*eine* & cuirfed radarc na *n*-daine is in line direch o E & o A & o B cum na greine. Ma sedh na daine ata a n-E dacit siat ecl*ipsis* na gre*ine* co follus. Et an buiden cedna ata a n-A & a m-B, dacit co follus an grian gan ecl*ipsis*, oir [ata](G600030/app780.html) an re robec a fecain [na greine](G600030/app781.html) . Ni [folaidinn](G600030/app782.html) an grian orta & is uime sin ar a fad san on grein teit a radarc co h-urusa don taib thuas don re d'innsaighi na greine.


![to face p. 104](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face104.gif)


[Luna non uidetur priusquam etcetera](G600030/app783.html) .
-


.i. Ni faicter an re co brach no co [m-binn](G600030/app784.html) se da ceim deg on grein oir [ni liginn](G600030/app785.html) treisi t-soillsi na greine duinn a faicsin & [binn se da ceim deg on grein an tan foillsiter e laca rinne](G600030/app786.html) ar tosac & is annsin bis ar a primh .i. ar a ced solus, & teit an grian fai da lucht oirrc*ir* an dom*ain* ar m-beth don re ar aen c*eim* deg uaithi, sul daciter e, an trat bis si ac soillsiug*ad* da lucht iart*air* an dom*ain* co follus ar m-beth dan re ar da ceim deg no nis [mo on grein. Et mar sin as tusca da cit lucht iartair an domain an re na lucht oirrc*ir* den la amhain. Et mar sin an trat bis an re da ceim deg no tri deg no becan nis mo on grein as bec an cainndighacht](G600030/app787.html)


---

p.106




a faicter e. Et an trat bis o ocht ceiminna deg co tri ceiminnaib *fiche*t on grein as annsin as mo a [cainndighacht](G600030/app788.html) .


[Degsamlacht soluis an re & na n-airdrinnach. A n-egsamlacht.](G600030/app789.html)  Dico qud Luna ac sidera etcetera.
----------------------------------


.i. Aderim co faicter an re & na h-airdreannaidh a n-en uair & a n-en aimsir co solus a [crit](G600030/app790.html) & co dorca a crith ele. Lucht na crite dachi iat co solus, as e dabeir orca a faicsin .i. [an aitchi](G600030/app791.html) da leth dibh annsan aimsir cedna. An la [baines](G600030/app792.html) da lucht na crite ele gan a faicsin & ni he cinta an lae dabeir sin acht anmainne radairc na [n-dainedh](G600030/app793.html) . Et mar sin an cric an a foill*sig*ter an grian, [fol*aid*ter an re](G600030/app794.html) & na h-airdrinnaidh risin fad sin uirre, & an trat folaidter hi as i foillsiges iat san; & mar sin bis an [tene](G600030/app795.html) & gach ni solus ele, ach ge fada uait iat san [aite](G600030/app796.html) is aibsec a solus & ge mad fogus duit sa lo iat as anaibsec a solus. Ma sedh ma sailt*er* [let](G600030/app797.html) na h-aird*r*innaidh d'faicsin sa lo, imid mocrach no tratnona a poll dorcha domain & fec os da cinn & dacitfir iat a mullach na firmaminti os da cinn co follus et dacithfir iat an uair ecli*psis* na g*r*eine co follus.


Dagen anois cercall amail cercall na n-airdrinnach n-daingean ina cuireabh imdenamh morain do na h-airdrinnacaibh mora. Daghen speir ele don taib astigh di sin amail speir na greine, an a cuireb an grian fein & dagen dan taib astidh di sin speir ele amail speir an re [in](G600030/app798.html) a cuirib an re fein a cinn an deichmad la *fichet* o thosach an [mi](G600030/app799.html) . Et daghen in cethramad speir don taib istigh dib sin & scribocad [hi](G600030/app800.html) 'na sentrom & A 'na h-oirrcer & B 'na h-uachtar & C 'na h-iartar & D 'na h-ictar; & na ceithre cercalla beca ata ar cercall na talman ceat*ra*


---

p.108




catracha t*uic*t*er* asta & ceat*ra* litreca foill*sig*es na ceithre catracha sin E an catair oirrcerach & F an catair uachtarach & B an catair iartarach & H an cathair ichtarac & mar sin an trat teit an grian fai, [fagaidh](G600030/app801.html) a solus cathair F & tic tosach na h-aithi cuci & annsin as medon aiti a cathair E & dacit lucht na cathrac ele an uair sin na h-airtrinnaidh lansolus & an re ag erghi thoir lethsolus; [& an trat roites an re cathair H, bit a mull*ach* na firmaminte an tan sin;](G600030/app802.html) & an trat eirghes an grian toir don cathair sin, ni fedaid lucht aitrebta na cathrac an re [naid](G600030/app803.html) na h-airdrinnaidh a faicsin. Et an trat roithes grian os cinn catrac G bith a mull*ach* a c*er*c*aill*i & is annsin as medon lae ann & bith an re annsin sa let tiar don doman as cinn cathrac H & ni [foill*sigid* na h-airdrinnaid a solus fein](G600030/app804.html) da lucht catrac G.


![to face p. 108](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face108.gif)


Constat quod quatuor spere lune etcetera.
-----------------------------------------


.i. Ceat*ra* [cercailli](G600030/app805.html) innsit na h-eolaid da beit ag an re; an ced cercall acu re n-abur in speir mhor & le na roluas fein impoidh si [le an](G600030/app806.html) re en cuairt ris in la co n-aithe a timcill an domhain & dabeir air eirgi thoir & dul fai thiar annsa chuairt sin.


Et muna gluaisidh an speir mhor so an re en cuairt o oirrcir co h-iartar an domain [re](G600030/app807.html) la co n-aithi mar adobrumar dacitfi e gac n-en la & gach n-en [aithi](G600030/app808.html) gan folach on [taca](G600030/app809.html) da bedh se ar a prim thiar, ac dul sair tar eis a ceili no go m-bedh se fo deredh a medhon [na](G600030/app810.html) mis toir an oirrcir an domain. Et ar n-dol fai annsin da bedh se ar na folach do lo & [d'aithi](G600030/app811.html) no co [n-eirgidh](G600030/app812.html) tiar ar a primh aris a tosac na mis ele. Ma sedh as e gluasacht na cercailli moiri 


---

p.110




noch adubrumar b*er*es an re leis risan la co [n-aithe](G600030/app813.html) o oirrcear co h-iartar an dom*ain*, gidedh as o iartar co h-oirrcer an domhain ata gluasacht direc an re fein & is follus [gorab ed, oir](G600030/app814.html) an trat bis an re ar a primh tiar dacimid e gach n-en aithe ag drut sair tar eis a celi no go m-bi a n-oirrcear an domain & as e so gluasacht as nadurtha & is disli dho, oir as e so gluasacht na speiri [a](G600030/app815.html) fuil [se](G600030/app816.html) fein daingin, & in gluasact eli ut gluaises [e](G600030/app817.html) o oirrcear co h-iartar an domain risin la co n-aithi, ni fuil acht gluasacht ainneonac minadurtha ann.


An dara speir ata ac an re darub comhainm speir cosmail re speir na [comartad](G600030/app818.html) & an trat bis annsa speir so as follus e ac dul andsna comartaibh & astu, oir an trat teit d'innsaidhi na comartadh n-deiscertach as claenadh uata doni[13](javascript:footNote('G600030/note013.html')) & gidedh ni [facan](G600030/app819.html) cursad speiri na [comartad](G600030/app820.html) co brac.


An treas speir ata ac an re re n-abur an speir sa sentrom ata [let](G600030/app821.html) amuith da t-sentrom na talman & is [fogus](G600030/app822.html) cuid di son don talmain & as lan fada an cuid ele uaithe, & as ar [in](G600030/app823.html) cuis sin bis in re annsa speir sin, uair a fogus don talmain & uair ele a fad [uadha](G600030/app824.html) & is o iarthar co h-oircer an domain ata gluasacht na speiri sin.[14](javascript:footNote('G600030/note014.html'))


Et is a corp na sp*eiri* sin ata speir bec eli darub ainm in speir impoides le anuas cum an re, & ata speir an re daingin dogluaisti annsa speir sin mar thairnge a clar. Et a*s* gl*uais*es [an speir beac so](G600030/app825.html) annsa speir so 'na fuil an re daingin & an trat roites an re mullach na speiri sin adobrumar, luathaig*id* se a cursa. Et an trat bis an a ichtar, mallaidh se an cursa cedna & in trat mallaides dani raed egin [impoid](G600030/app826.html) tar a ais siar mar da nit na plain*eid* eli & gidedh ni follus an [t-impodh](G600030/app827.html) sin


---

p.112




mar as follus impodh na pl*ained*. Oir an speir sa seantrom ata don taib amuith da t-seantrom na talman tri na roluathi fein ag impodh an re leis, ni liginn an t-impod sin impodh an re [tar a ais](G600030/app828.html) d'faicsin.


![to face p. 112](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face112.gif)


Et dagen [anois](G600030/app829.html) fidair d'foill*siugad* na ceithre sp*eir* sin.


[Da c*er*c*allaib* na gre*ine*](G600030/app830.html) .
-


### Dico quod Seli bine spere etcetera.


.i. Aderim gorab da speir ata ag an grein. An ced speir acu da rer na speire lanmoiri gluaises siar & fuadaiges le [o](G600030/app831.html) oirrcear co h-iartar an domain. Et muna [thoirmisceadh](G600030/app832.html) sibal na speiri sin an gr*ian* da beth si re se mhi [diles fein](G600030/app833.html) ac dul o iartar co h-oircear an domain os cinn talman gan folach. Et da beith an comfad ele sin ac dul o oirc*er* an domain co h-iartar gan faicsin & mar sin da beth leth na bl*iadna* na [h-en](G600030/app834.html) la & in leth ele [na](G600030/app835.html) aithe.


An dara speir ata ag an gre*in* darub ainm an speir sa seantrom ata leth amuith da sheantrom na talman mar ata ag an re & o iartar co h-oirrcear an domain ata gluasacht na speiri sin & is fogus an speir so & in grian innte le celi [da taib](G600030/app836.html) don talmain & is fada [on](G600030/app837.html) taib ele. Et an trat bis an gri*an* go focus don talmain annsa speir sin, loisgidh [si](G600030/app838.html) deiscert na talman co mor co fuil an cric sin doaitribthe & in trat [as faidi bhis](G600030/app839.html) o talmain annsa [speir cedna](G600030/app840.html) ni roithinn a tes cum [an](G600030/app841.html) talman & [ata](G600030/app842.html) an mede sin da tuaiscert na talman doaitrebthi [o imarcridh fuachta](G600030/app843.html) .


Dagen anois fidair da foill*siughadh* mar atait an da cercall sin na greine [na](G600030/app844.html) ceile.




---

p.114


[D'ordug*ad* na deich sp*eir*eadh](G600030/app845.html) .
-


### [Sicud dicit **Partolomeus**](G600030/app846.html) .


.i. [Mar](G600030/app847.html) adeir an feall*sam* [sin](G600030/app848.html) da gne gluasachta dacimid is in firmamint .i. gluasacht acu o oirrcear co h-iartar & in gluasacht eli o iart*ar* co h-oirrcear an domain. Et tic gri*an* & esca & gach plained [don c*uig*er](G600030/app849.html) ele le [cainndigeacht](G600030/app850.html) leitne a speiri fein annsa gluasacht sair. An gluasacht siar, uero, [fuadaid](G600030/app851.html) se na plaineid leis siar so contrardha a n-ag*aid* a n-gluasachta nadurtha fein noch ata soir. Et aderim aris gorab en gluasacht comtrom ata ac grein & ag esca & ag a c*uig*ear eli & ac na h-airdrinnacaibh daingne uile, oir ni fuil acu uili leth ar leath en relta as luaithi na *a*s mailli [gluasacht](G600030/app852.html) na celi. Et is ime sin ni fuil [deitfir](G600030/app853.html) is in doman idir gluasacht na gre*ine* no an re & gluasacht na [ret*lann*](G600030/app854.html) ele, oir is deimin gorab inann naduir & [cruthug*ad*](G600030/app855.html) doib. Et ge daciter [gorob](G600030/app856.html) maille Saturnus na'n re ar son na cuisi inneosamaid aris,[15](javascript:footNote('G600030/note015.html')) [as comtrom a n-gluasacht](G600030/app857.html) .


[Agus mar adeir **Partholomeus**](G600030/app858.html) & na feall*samain* ele, deich speiri mora ata ann & is inann gluasacht don sp*eir* as mo dib sin re n-ab*arthar* an speir lanmor & do speir na comartad oir [is](G600030/app859.html) siar gluaisid araen.


Gl*uasacht* an ocht speire uero .i. speir na n-airdrinnach n-daingin & na gre*ine* & an esca & cuigear ele [o iartar co h-oirrcer an domain ata, amail adubrumar co minic](G600030/app860.html) , & don taibh astigh da ceili ata suid*iugad* na speir sin & is i speir an re as faicsi don talmain dib & speir Mercuir annsein & Uenir & na gre*in*e don taibh amuith dib sin & speir Mars & speir Iubiter & Sad*uir*n don taib amuit dib sin & speir na n-airdrinnach n-daingin don taib amuith dib sin. Agus ni h-ar son nach gluaisid siat aderur airdrinnaigh [daingne](G600030/app861.html) riu, oir gluaisid o 


---

p.116




oirrcear co h-iartar an domain mar danit na plaineid ele, & ni hedh, acht ar son nach claenaid siat o tuaiscert co deiscert na firmaminte mar danit siat sin. Speir na comartadh an naomad [speir](G600030/app862.html) . [Agus](G600030/app863.html) don taibh amuith dib sin leth ar leth ata an deichmad speir darub ainm an speir lanmor [no](G600030/app864.html) an speir direch d'ainm ele. Agus as so [amuit](G600030/app865.html) fidair [as a *tui*cter uile iad](G600030/app866.html) .


[Adubart](G600030/app867.html) tuas gorab luaithi an re da rer fecsana na Sadurn. Da m-beith an re a cercaill Saduirn da beth se deich m-bl*iadn*a *fiche*t ag sibal mar bis Sadurn. Et mar sin da siboladh Sadurn cercall an re, da m-beth [ann](G600030/app868.html) re ocht la *fiche*t & re secht seachtmaine ach en la mar do ni fein. Et as mar sin as e cumhga an rotha bis acu sin & fairsinge an rotha ele dabeir co faicter na plaineid ata innta luath no amhluath & ni he co fuil siat mar sin, oir as cert inann curs*a* & naduir, luas & amluas doib. Et da [n-dearntaid](G600030/app869.html) tri *fichi*t & tri ced cuit comtrom co seantrom na talman da speir Saduirn & crut cruinn da cur ar gac en cuid acu sin do bo comhtrom gac cuit acu re speir an re. Et da m-beth speir an re lethan & nai n-urdail d*eg* & a da *fiche*t & a tri c*ed* urdail do chur na ceann fein & crut speiri da cur air sin uile, [ni](G600030/app870.html) mo na mar sin da beth comtrom re speir Saduirn. Et as mar sin derbtar gorab e [cumgacht](G600030/app871.html) & fairsinge cercall na planet dabeir sibal luath d'faicsin ac cuid acu & sibal amluath ac cuit ele gin co fuilit mar sin mar adubrumar co minic.


Et da scriob **Tolomeus** eisimplair
follus d'foillsiugad an da gluasacht adubrumar tuas, o oirrcear co h-iartar & o iartar co h-oirrcear en domain. Da [ritad](G600030/app872.html) rotha o oirrcear co h-iartar an domhain risin la co [n-aiti](G600030/app873.html) & co m-bedh cercall bec a dimceall t-seantro*i*m an rotha sin & cercall budh da comor [ria](G600030/app874.html) sin don taib amuith de & an 


---

p.118




treas cercall leth amuith de sin [u](G600030/app875.html) tri mho na'n ced cercall. An cethramad cercall don taib amuith de sin o cethri mo na'n ced cercall & mar sin suas [co nuic](G600030/app876.html) an ochtmad cercall & liatroid da bet in gac en cercall acu fa let 'ga gluasact o iartar co h-oirrcear an domain, & is cosmail an rot so [re](G600030/app877.html) speir lanmoir an domain & na cercalla beca sin adubrumar re cercallaib meadhonaca na speiri moire sin. Ma sedh an trat impoides an ced cercall a timceall ar tus, bith an dara cercall ar in dara cuit da timcill & in treas cercall ar in treas cuid & an cethramad cercall ar in cethramad & an cuigmad ar an cuigmad & in sesed ar in sesed & in sechtmad ar in sechtmad & in ochtmad ar in ochtmad. Et mar sin an trat darachadh an ochtmad cercall timcill uili, daracad an ced cercall re h-ocht cuartaib timcill. An fad da bedis na h-ocht cercalla so a coimhlinadh a cursa timcell as mor minic atarra sin d'impodh an [roth](G600030/app878.html) o oirrcear co h-iartar an domain & da tinnscondais na h-ocht cercalla a sibal fein & da gerug*ad* inntleachta an legtora do cuirimar an t-samail so sis.


![to face p. 118](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face118.gif)


[maccima](G600030/app879.html) Sciendum est quia spera etcetera.
---------------------------------


.i. Bith a fis agad gorab hi an speir romor a*s* speir direach ann & as mor da baramhlaib secranaca tugadar na h-aineolaid [di](G600030/app880.html) , oir adobradar ar son gorab i as airdi & as oiredha & as luaith*i* do na speirib gorab hi tuismidhteoir an domain hi. Agus coimlinaidh si a cursa re la co n-aithi & atait tri *fichit* & tri ced cem [Stodiacus](G600030/app881.html) innte fein & is na h-ag*aid* so gluaises speir na n-airdrinnac n-daingin o iartar co oircer an domain & bit ag sibal en ceme deic ced bli*adain*. Et gach en speir da speirib na plained da rer a [cumgachta](G600030/app882.html) & a fairsinga coimlinaid a cursa.




---

p.120


An speir lanmor cheana, ata gac aen taeba a timcill na speiredh eli, follamnai*gid* iat & dabeir orra impodh o oirrcer ho h-iartar an domain & as i so cuis ag la & ag [aithi](G600030/app883.html) , ac solus & ag dorcadus & ag examlacht na [n-aims*er*](G600030/app884.html) ag earrac & ac samrad ac fodhmar & ac geimreadh.


Et don taibh astigh don speir so cumhdaigter & folamhnaiter & gluaister gach uili ni ar teithead co cl*aech*l*ig*dis uair egin a stait no a [suidheochan](G600030/app885.html) no a [n-ordochan](G600030/app886.html) & is i so dani na plained co soimpaidtec & an talam co dogluasta, oir da m-beth an talam sogluasta ni coinneochadh la na aithi a cursa fein mar donit anois & ni [derbochaighi](G600030/app887.html) cursa na plained & rotha na firmam*inti* mar doniter anois. Agus ni fuilit [retlanna](G600030/app888.html) annsa speir sin. Agus adubradar na h-aineolaidh co fuil anam innti & gorab uaithi gabus gac uili ni [anam](G600030/app889.html) . Agus aderim-si gidh mor a [cumachta](G600030/app890.html) an gac uili ni da n-dubrumar gorab o na tuismigteoir fein ghabus si na cumachta sin. Et da derbadh gorab edh ni feas ca h-obair doni [neach](G600030/app891.html) no co m-bi tar eis a denm*us*a. Ma sedh o bis [fis gac uili gnimha](G600030/app892.html) da tig on speir lanmoir againne sul doniter iat, as o nec eli [doniter](G600030/app893.html) na gnimarta sin & ni h-uaiti fein.


Secunda spera post macsimam speram etcetera.
--------------------------------------------


[Is i in dara](G600030/app894.html) speir tar eis na speiri lanmoire & [is foicse na hi don talmain Stodiace](G600030/app895.html) .i. speir na comartadh & ata leis [gan retlanna](G600030/app896.html) mar adubrumar an speir lanmor da beth, & [gluaissidh](G600030/app897.html) o oirrcer co h-iartar an domuin mar gluaises si. Et da sailidar na h-arsanta gorab i so na nai speir ele & gorab cercall da cercallaib na speiri lanmoiri hi & scrisaidh **Tolameus** an baramail so a na lebar fein & adeir co [fuair idir](G600030/app898.html) an speir lanmoir & Stodiacus 'na creasaib & 'na pollaib spas fada, oir fuair pol tuaiscertac Stodia*c* a 


---

p.122




ceitre ceiminnaib *fichet* nis airdi na'n pol cedna ac an sp*eir* lanmoir. Et fuair pol deiscertac an Stodiace ceithre ceiminna *fichet* eli fan pol cedna ag an speir lanmhoir. Et atait creasanna na speiri so ceithre ceiminna *fichet* o celi a mullach na firmaminnti. Et as uime sin cuiris **Tolameus** deich sp*eireadh*a ann & is don naomad speir labramaid an trat adermaid grian no esca no plained ele da beit [a ceim egin](G600030/app899.html) do comartaibh na speiri sin.


Et as i cuis fa n-dob*ar*t na h-anmanna so .i. Airgeis no Taubhrus, Leo etcetera, ar comartaib na Stodiace, ar son co ticid na h-airdrinnaigh a speir na retlann ar [comair](G600030/app900.html) na codac sin [da](G600030/app901.html) Stodiace ar a m-bi [Airgei*s*](G600030/app902.html) no Tabhrus mar ainm, le cuma & le naduir na n-ainminntedh cedna againne annso, & gidedh ni fuil [cruth*ugad*](G600030/app903.html) is in doman a Stodiace, oir mar adubrumar, ni bi [retla](G600030/app904.html) ann.


Et darinneadar na fealls*amain* da chuid deg da Stodiace & adubradar comarta re gac cuit da rer anma & fidrach an raeda bis fai an comartha sin is in line direc a speir na [retlann](G600030/app905.html) . Et darinneadar mar sin da chuid deg don bl*iadhain* da rer an da comarta deg sin na greine & adubradar mi re sibal na greine an gac comarta dib & do muinedar na feall*samain* as *s*in examlacht na h-aimsiri da beth ann da rer sibail na gre*ine* o comarta co comartha & da rer a h-ardaithe & a h-islithe, oir an trat tet grian annsa ced ponc d'Airgeis tic exinocsium ann .i. comhtromacht lae & [aithe](G600030/app906.html) & is annsin tinnscnus an t-errach; & ni teit as no co m-bi grian a n-Gemen & in trat teit gri*an* a Cainnser as annsin as tosac don t-samradh. Et ar m-beth di annsin a mull*ach* a speiri thuas, teidhid an grian [co mor](G600030/app907.html) ag*aid* na talman & ar tiact di co ponc derinac Uirgo, cuiridh cric ar in samradh. 


---

p.124




Agus an trat teit co ponc derinnach Libra, bit an da*ra* [exenocium](G600030/app908.html) ann & tinnscnaidh an fodhmar annsin & ni teit as no co m-bi gri*an* a ponc derinach [Saigitarius](G600030/app909.html) . Et an trat bis a ponc deighinach Capricornus tinnscnaid an geimreadh & bith ann no co m-bi aris a ponc deighinach Airgeis & tinnscnaidh annsin aris an t-errach.


Et as i cuis dab*eir* co m-bi geimread [ann](G600030/app910.html) as fuaire na celi & geimreadh as fl*ich*i na ceili & geimridh as tirma na celi & samradh as teo & samradh as tirma na ceili ann .i. as i an grian doni earrach & samrad, fogmhar & geimredh & donit na plain*eid* ele na h-aimsera cedna. Agus an trat tic samradh na greine ann & bid na plain*eid* eli a comartha a n-geimrid fein, bit [acmuinn mor fertana & fuachta](G600030/app911.html) is in t-samradh & an trat tic g*eim*re*ad* na greine & bit na plain*eid* eli is na comarthaib foill*sig*es [a](G600030/app912.html) samradh fein, bith gaeth & becan fertana & fuachta is in g*eim*re*ad* sin co h-airithe, & is mar sin do na h-aimseraibh eli & is i sin cuis [t*eas**a* & f*uacht*a, tirmaigachta & fl*ich*a](G600030/app913.html) ceithre n-aimser na bl*iadna* .i. da rer imteachta na plained a comartaib an Stodiace mar d'ordaidh an tuismighteoir benaithi [fein](G600030/app914.html) iat.


[catuor](G600030/app915.html) Dico quod Saturnus per etcetera..
---------------------------------


.i. Aderim mar atait ceithre glua*s*achta ag Sadurn co fuilit ceithre speiri aige a n-gluaisinn se .i. an ced gl*uasacht* dib, an speir lanmor o oirrcer co h-iartar an domain. An dara gluasacht, a gluasacht nadurtha fein o iartar co h-oirrcer an domhain. An treas gluasacht .i. gluasacht na speiri na fuil fein daingin & a siblaighinn co direc no tar a ais co luath no co h-amluath. An cethramad gluasacht .i. gluasacht na speiri sa seantrom ata leth amuith da seantrom na talman & as ar in speir sin toctar [gac](G600030/app916.html) pl*ain*ed gac fad fedtar suas on talmain & [licter](G600030/app917.html) sis gach foicsi fedtar don 


---

p.126




talmain. Et is iat so na ceithre gluasachta ata ag na plainedaibh uili a n-egmus na greine ag a fuil da speir & da gluasacht.


Et scribocad aris na ceithre speiri sin maille *re* na n-gluasachtaib fein & dagen ar tosac fidair na speiri moiri & fidhair na talman ar a lar & cuirfed A 'na h-oircher & B 'na h-uachtar & C 'na iartar & D 'na h-ichtar & is amlaid ata gluasacht na speiri moiri ó A co B & o B co C & o C go D & o D go h-A.


Et dagen fidair an dara speir noch gluaiseas o iarthur co h-oirrcear an domain noch ata fan speir moir & ata sa line direach fan Stodiaca & is amlaidh ata Stodiaca gu claen & an speir lan mor go direach os ar cinn oir mar adubrumar as fada a poil & a ludrach o cheile.


![to face p. 126 (1)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face126_1.gif)


Et dagen fidair an treas speir sa seantrom ata don taib amuit da t-seantrom na talman don taibh astig don *da* speir roimhe & as e inadh a fuil seantrom na speiri so a n-deiscert seantroim na talman da ceim co leth da rer thomhais lethni na speiri & ata ar na roinn a fiche & a ced cuid, & ata an speir so a fogas don talmain da taibh de & a fad uada da taib ele.


Et [dagen](G600030/app918.html) fidair an cethramad speir noch connmas corp an plaineid innti co dangin dan taib astid do na tri speirib ele. Et as amlaid ata seantrom na retlainne sin mar ata seantrom na speiri a na [fuil](G600030/app919.html) & as amlaid gluaises o iartar co h-oirrcer an domain & a mullach na speiri sa seantrom ata leat amuigh da seantrom na talman ata seantrom na plained sin mar tairngi daingin [dogl*uaisti*](G600030/app920.html) [a speir & ni cursa direach](G600030/app921.html) mar soigit ata ag na [plainedaibh](G600030/app922.html) [ac](G600030/app923.html) cursa cruinn nadurtha mar roth cartach a sibul o iartar co h-oircer an domain.


![to face p. 126 (2)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face126_2.gif)


Agus da m-beth tairngi a lethimill uachtarach na cartac dagenadh sibal o iartar co h-oircer an domain a dul sis cumh na talman ni gluaisfeadh siar na soir & in trat da roithfeadh an talam dogenad a cursa da 


---

p.128


[claenadh](G600030/app924.html) o oirrcer co [h-iartar](G600030/app925.html) & in trat d'eireochad o talmain suas ni gluaisfedh siar no soir. Et mar [da suigeadh](G600030/app926.html) an mullach uachtarach da gl*uais*fed annsin [soir](G600030/app927.html) . Et as i so an cuis dab*eir* ar na plainedaib sibal direc uair & [sibal tar ais](G600030/app928.html) uair ele & sibal [digair](G600030/app929.html) uair & sibal mall uair ele da genamh.


Postquam Saturne sperus motus etcetera.
---------------------------------------


.i. tar eis mar [d'innsimar](G600030/app930.html) speir & gl*uasacht* Sad*uir*n & na plained ele inneosamaid anois cinnus impoid tar ais, re n-abur retrogradcio .i. caissimpodh .i. an trat impoides an planed tar a ais o Airgheis co Pisis.


Et da cur sin a ceill dagen fidair da speir Sad*uir*n & cuirfed don taib amuith dib speir na comartadh & dagen da cuit deg di & tar eisi sin cuirfed dan taib astigh di speir Sad*uir*n sa seantrom ata don taib amuith da seantrom na talman & cuirfed 'na mullach tuas an speir ana fuil corp an plan*eid* co daingin & cuirfed 'na diagh sin an talam 'na [inadh fein](G600030/app931.html) & E ar a lar & cuirfed Sadurn a ceithre [cercallaib](G600030/app932.html) beca a dimcill a cercaille fein. [Et cuirfed an ced cercall da na cercallaibh beca sin a mullach a cercaill fein](G600030/app933.html) [&](G600030/app934.html) line trit idir Airgheis & Pisis. Et an dara cercall a n-inadh a ced comhnaighe & B ar a lar. An treas cercall a n-inadh an caisimpoidh & C ar a lar. An cethramad cercall a n-inadh an dara comnaighe & D ar a lar. Agus tarrongad tri line [o seantrom na talman suas tri Sadurn](G600030/app935.html) co cosmailus na comartad ata a speir na n-airdrinnach n-daingin. Et as iat na [linedha](G600030/app936.html) sin radarc na sul o talmain suas d'innsaighi Sad*uir*n & cuirfed an lin*e* as dirgha dib sin 


---

p.130




o talmain suas d'innsaighi A, & is mar sin an trat bis Sadurn a n-inad A a tosac Airgeis bith se annsa Stodiaca & soir co lan direach bis a sibal & ar sibal do mar sin sair a n-Airgeis ceiminna airithi claenas *s*e co B & an trat tic annsin ni gluaisinn sair na siar & is ime sin as e sin a ced comhnaighi; & an trat fagas an t-inadh sin gluaisid siar co D & is e sin as inadh caisimpoid do; & as annsin bis gl*uasacht* lan direach aigi o oirrcer co h-iartar an domhain, & ac dul siar do an trat roites inadh C as e sin as inadh an dara comnaighi do oir ni gluaisinn annsin soir na siar. Et gibe neach d'fecfadh annsin o medon na talman suas dagebadh se annsin a Pisis an Sadurn da bi roimhe an Airges & ar [fagail](G600030/app937.html) D [do thoir](G600030/app938.html) rachaid tar eis a ceili suas aris co h-A. Et as i sin an chuis fa faicter na plaineid uair is mo na ceili iat, oir in trat donit caisimpodh chum na talman as ann as aibsigi daciter iat.


![to face p. 130](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face130.gif)


Et gach ni da n-dubrumar ar speirib & ar gluasachtaibh & ar gach naduir ele da fuil ac Sadurn is coir na neice cedna do tuicsin ar Iubiter & ar Mars o nach fuil *deich*fer aturra 'na sibal [na 'na n-gluasacht](G600030/app939.html) na 'na n-gnimartaib. Et teagmaid na nethi cedna do na tri pl*ained*aibh ata leath anis don grein gin co follus ar in re na neti sin tri roluas a speiri *sa* seantrom ata leth amuith do seantrom na talman, oir in speir [connmas](G600030/app940.html) in re co daingean as sair ghl*uais*es & an trat do ni an caisimpodh tar ais as siar gluaises & is ime sin nac follus an t-impodh sin & gidedh is follus a sibul ele & a comnaighi, oir [bith](G600030/app941.html) la ann a siblaiginn da ceim deg & la ele [na](G600030/app942.html) sibl*aig*inn ceithre c*eiminn*a deg.




---

p.132


[Da speir *na* n-airdrinnach n-daingin.](G600030/app943.html) 
### Hec spero octauo situatur in loco etcetera.


.i. Ata in speir so ar na suig*iugad* san ochtmad inadh sa firmamint & ata ar na cruth*ugad* da samlacus Airgeis & [Tabrus](G600030/app944.html) & Geimin & [comarta](G600030/app945.html) eli Stodiace. Agus as amlaid gl*uais*id airdrinnaidh na speiri sin co cert comtrom & co comfada & go comhfogus da ceili is gac en aimsir tri bithu sir o iartar co h-oirrcer an domain, oir ni bi luas na mailli na sibal direach na caisimpodh acu mar bis ac na retlannaib seacranacha. Agus [bid](G600030/app946.html) ced bli*adhain* ac sibal en [ceme](G600030/app947.html) da ceiminnaib na speiri moiri.


Ad hec indiganda geomitrica sunt.
---------------------------------


.i. Da lorgaireacht an adbuir so is [egin arrmainnte](G600030/app948.html) geomitric d'fagail da [creidfeam](G600030/app949.html) co neamhcunntaburtach. [Dagenum ma sedh](G600030/app950.html) fidair na talman & cuirfed E 'na seantrom & tarrongad [cercall](G600030/app951.html) ele o na tuaiscert conuice a deiscert & tarrongad line direach o Pol Airtic co Pol Antairtic trit an talmain & tri cercall na talman & cuirfead A a mullach na fir*ma*minnti & B a pol tuaisc*irt* [an cerc*aill*](G600030/app952.html) & C fai tis & D na pol [deisc*er*tach](G600030/app953.html) .


![to face p. 134](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face134.gif)


Ma sedh gibe nec da beth a n-inad E & [dagebadh](G600030/app954.html) an astrolaib 'na laimh, [oir](G600030/app955.html) is le sin [dagebtar](G600030/app956.html) fis lan deimhin an raeda so, & da cuirfed a edan ar line med*on*ac na h-astralaibh & da coinnemad hi ar snaithi o na ordoig sis & do fecfed Pol Airtic tri dha poll a da clar, [dagiaba](G600030/app957.html) se an pol sin comtrom risin talmain. Agus da siblaidh o [E](G600030/app958.html) se mili & tri *fichit* mile & da trian mili co B & an astrolaib da cur [ar comuir](G600030/app959.html) Poil Airtic annsin & a fiachain triti mar do rinne roimhe, [dagiabtha](G600030/app960.html) se ceim ar airdi 


---

p.134




ann os cinn na talman & en ceim amhain do na tri *fichit* & do na tri ced ceim na [hastrolaibh](G600030/app961.html) foill*siges* a beith mar sin.


Et da *n*gluasir aris as sin d'innsaighe B, se mili & tri *fiichit* mile ele & da trian mili & an astrolaib da cur [ar comair](G600030/app962.html) [in](G600030/app963.html) poil cedna & a fecain mar dorinne roimhe [dagiabad](G600030/app964.html) se da ceim ann ar airdi os a cinn & mar sin co brach o E d'innsaighi B [dagiabadh](G600030/app965.html) a cinn [gach](G600030/app966.html) se mili & tri *fichit* m*ili* & da trian m*ili* no co [soitedh](G600030/app967.html) B, ceim [ag fas](G600030/app968.html) ar airdi ar in Pol cedna. Agus med na [milted](G600030/app969.html) sin uili ar en slighi, as edh donit siat da rer [cainndigachta](G600030/app970.html) na tri *fichit* & na tri ced ceim ata a dimcill speire na talman, ceithre mili *fichit* da miltib; as e sin tomus timcill o cercall an uisce & na talman. Et as *ed*, ata an alcoterra .i. a tighi cercailli na talman ocht mili do miltibh & is mar sin [is a ceithre m*ili* do miltib](G600030/app971.html) ata co sentrom na talman & is [tri m*ili* & s*eachtadh*](G600030/app972.html)  is coir da gach m*ili* acu sin da beth ann.


[Antiqui linea ab Oriente ad Occidentem etcetera](G600030/app973.html) .
-


.i. Da smuaintigheadar na h-arsanta line dar [lar](G600030/app974.html) na talman co direach on a oircer [conuig](G600030/app975.html) a iartar comtrom re line [eccinoccialis](G600030/app976.html) & d'fagadar againne gorab comfada on line [sin](G600030/app977.html) co Pol Airtic & uada co Pol Intartic.


Et is idir an line sin & Pol Airtic ata cuit [d'aitrib](G600030/app978.html) na n-daine don talmain gin co [soaitribthi](G600030/app979.html) an cuit sin uile de. Et on line cedna co Pol Antartic, ni fedann ainm*ide* is in doman beth beo ann tri imarcraid teasa. Oir os annsa speir sa seantrom ata leth amuith da seantrom na talman, [imarcear](G600030/app980.html) corp na greine a timceall 


---

p.136




na talman & os don taibh [sin](G600030/app981.html) ata claenad na speiri sin as egin gorab [rotheo](G600030/app982.html) an taeb sin na gach taeb
eli don talamh & as bec ar a mo an teas ata sa taib sin na'n fuacht ata sa taibh eli ar a comhair. Et as ime sin, a n-deiredh na codac [u](G600030/app983.html) tuaigh don talmain, tre [rofad](G600030/app984.html) na greine uada, ni fuil en raed [ach a](G600030/app985.html) lan da nelaib dorcha & da [gaith](G600030/app986.html) & d'fertain, da reodh & do shneachta & d'fuacht mor. Agus is ime sin ata an t-inad sin doaitrebtha, & an t-inad cheana ata fa [in](G600030/app987.html) line eccinoccialis measardha.


Et atait laeithe & [aiteda](G600030/app988.html) na bl*iadna* gus an en raed comfada re celi annsan inadh sin. Et as on line sin ata [egecinoccialis](G600030/app989.html) conuic an crith tuaisc*er*taigh [doaitrebtha](G600030/app990.html) ata an cuit fedtar d'atrebadh don talmain. Darinneadar na h-arsanta seact [codcanna](G600030/app991.html) don cuid sin [ar](G600030/app992.html) fad o oirrcer co h-iartar na talman mar foill*sig*es an fidair [so](G600030/app993.html) .


![to face p. 136](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face136.gif)


[Do naduir na crich sin.](G600030/app994.html)
#### 


Et as on line ata fai eccinoccialis tinnscnus an ced clima ar letead & ata ar fad mar adubrumar o oirrcear co h-iartar an domain & ni teit an la ar fad [tar](G600030/app995.html) da uair deg & da drian uaire [go direach fa do sa bliadain](G600030/app996.html) & ni bi nis girra na en uair [deg](G600030/app997.html) & treis mir uaire. Et bith [an](G600030/app998.html) grian [fa dho sa bl*iadhain*](G600030/app999.html) os cinn lucht na crice sin .i. an trat teit si o deiscert co tuaiscert na firmaminti & as sin co deiscert aris & mar sin bid [da](G600030/app1000.html) samrad an en bl*iadain* is in cric sin. Et ni claenann [an](G600030/app1001.html) scaili co brach annsa cric sin on a tuaiscert conuic a deiscert.


#### Naduir an dara clima:


dani [imarcaig gainim](G600030/app1002.html) na crici sin co rothe hi fein, oir tet teas na grein*e* astec annsa n-gainim & bruithid & doighidh [aghaidh](G600030/app1003.html) na talman & an trat tig gaeth mor ann cruinnig*id* an gaineamh & doni 


---

p.138




cnuic & sleibti dhe & uair ele, scailidh e. [Agus](G600030/app1004.html) daine duba re n-ab*arthar* fir gorma [& fuilt chasa acu lucht aitribthe](G600030/app1005.html) na crici sin. Agus ata acmainn mor oir annsa cric sin tre imar*craid* teasa na greine ac bruith [aithe](G600030/app1006.html) na talman. Agus [ni](G600030/app1007.html) [ha](G600030/app1008.html) fedanaib & a cuisleannaibh na talman dageibter an t-or sin mar dageibter an t-airgead & in sdan & na mitaill ele sin, acht ar a uachtar. Agus ni teit an la tar tri h-uairibh deg suas co brach na tar da uair deg sis annsa cric sin.


#### Naduir an treas clima:


as ludha teasbac na cric sin na na crici roimhe oir ni bhi an grian is in line direach os a cinn co brac acht a solsticium in t-samraidh tamall gerr & is mesardha an cric sin na gach cric da n-dubrumar. Et as amlaid ata lucht [aitribthi](G600030/app1009.html) na crici sin & dath riabach & fuilt cassa & cuirp caela acu. Agus is gerr suas o talmain fasaid croinn na crice sin. Agus ni teit an la tar ceithre h-uairib deg suas & ni mo th*et* tar deich n-uairib sis co brat annsa cric sin.


#### Naduir an cethramad clima:


as mesardha coimpl*ex* na crici so na na [cric](G600030/app1010.html) ele adubrumar, oir ni fuil [imarcridh](G600030/app1011.html) fuachta na teasa acu & atait acmainneach conaith fa crannaib examla & fa tortaib imda na talman & fedaid lucht [aitribthe](G600030/app1012.html) na ced crici & in dara crich [soaitrib da dhenamh](G600030/app1013.html) innte co nembaedlach. Et as amlaid atait lucht [aitribthi](G600030/app1014.html) na crici sin a n-dath buighe idir geal & riabac & atait inntleachtach somuinti & cuimhne fhada acu & eagna mor & is annsa cric so as [lia](G600030/app1015.html) da bhi da lucht an iuil mhoir & na h-eagna & da lucht [an cro*ide* mhoir](G600030/app1016.html) & arrachtus cuirp; & is ferr bl*as* uisce na crici sin na na cric ele. Et ni teit an la tar cuig uairib deg suas na tar naoi uairib sis co brach is in cric sin.




---

p.140


#### Naduir an cuigmad clima


.i. is ludha a teas & is mo a fuacht [na'n cric](G600030/app1017.html) sin roimpi & gidhedh as [lia](G600030/app1018.html) a croinn & as fearr toradh a n-gort. Agus is amlaid atait lucht aitribthi na crice sin & coirp mesardha acu, a n-dath cumusca, as foicsi [da g*eal* na da riabac](G600030/app1019.html) , is ludha a n-egna & as girra a saedhal & is [conaithi](G600030/app1020.html) iat na lucht na crici roimpi; & fasaidh an la co se h-uairib deg & bith ar dombisec co h-ocht n-uairib annsa crit sin.


[seiseadh](G600030/app1021.html)
#### Naduir an clima:


as ludha a teas & is mo a fuacht & is ludha torad a crann a n-gort tri mhed a fuachta na 'na [cric](G600030/app1022.html) roimpi & is [imdha](G600030/app1023.html) sneachta & fertain & neil [& tobair](G600030/app1024.html) & srota & cnuic & slebti na crici sin. Et as amlaid ata [lucht](G600030/app1025.html) na crice sin & cuirp anmanna acu, a n-*d*ath g*eal* & fuilt th-slime & iat co bruidimail domuinti. Et atait secht n-uaire deg is in la as faidi [sa cric sin](G600030/app1026.html) & ocht n-uaire co leth sa lo as girra.


#### Naduir an sechtmad clima:


*.i.* easbaidh teasa & acmainn fuachta. Et as amlaid atait lucht aitribthi na crici sin: [indtleachtach (!)](G600030/app1027.html) domunta & ciall anmann & cumne bruidemail & cirp anmanna [& fuilt findbuidhi t-slime](G600030/app1028.html) . Agus da n-deachdais lucht aitribthi na crici so is in ced cric no sa dara cric no da ticdis lucht na crici sin innte so dagebdais bas leth ar leth tri cl*aech*l*od* an aeir.


Et as mar sin an cethramadh cric as mesarda & is ferr acu leth ar leth, oir ata mesaracht [nimhe](G600030/app1029.html) ac oil*eamain* na crici sin tar cach. Et ocht n-uaire deg an la as faidi sa crith sin & se n-uaire an la as girra.




---

p.142


Do na h-inadaibh a na fuil an bliadain uile na h-en la & na h-en aithe.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------


### Duo in terra loca esse nouimus etcetera.


.i. Da inadh ar aithnit duinn ar talmain .i. inadh acu is in line direach fa Pol Airtic, an dara h-inadh is in line direc fa Pol Intairtic a na fuil an bl*iadain* uili na h-en la & na h-en [aithi](G600030/app1030.html) oir atait se mhi 'na h-enla & se mhi eli 'na h-en [aithi](G600030/app1031.html) . Et gibe neach dabeth a n-deredh tuaisc*irt* na talman annsan inad a m-bet Pol Airtic .i. ludrac tuaisc*ir*t na firmaminti annsa line direach os a cinn, dacithfedh se cercall an line diridh [ata a cosm*ul*as](G600030/app1032.html) re cercall na [comartadh](G600030/app1033.html) 'na timceall & dacithfedh [amlaid sin](G600030/app1034.html) gl*uasacht* na firmaminti mar gluasacht bron. Agus mar sin, an trat teit grian annsa line direach annsa ced cuit d'Airgeis [eirghidh](G600030/app1035.html) si thoir fo talmain don inadh sin adubrumar & doni la do & tic 'na timceall mar broin & impoidh o oirrcer co deiscert & o deiscert co h-iarthar & o iartar co tuaiscert & o tuaiscert aris co h-oircear, & bith mar sin ac sirsibal timcill a n-en [ceime](G600030/app1036.html) no [co teit](G600030/app1037.html) co Cainnser & as annsin bis annsa ceim sin as airdi a fedann si dul as cinn an inaidh sin & roinnidh si an la fada sin a n-da chuit comtroma & [bith](G600030/app1038.html) as sin ag isliug*ad* tar eis a ceili no co teit si a n-deredh na [h-oidche](G600030/app1039.html) & boinid annsin a solus don inadh adubrumar & bith la mar sin annsan inadh sin o medon mhis Marta co medon [mis Seiptimpir](G600030/app1040.html) .


Et an trat teit grian a [ced](G600030/app1041.html) ponc Libra, tinnscnaidh an [aiche](G600030/app1042.html) an t-inad cedna do dhorcug*ad* & bith an grian annsin ac sibal fa [cuairt](G600030/app1043.html) [mar broin](G600030/app1044.html) ag isliug*ad* sis tar eis a ceili fo talmain no co ti annsa ced ponc da 


---

p.144




Caipricornus & ni fedann isliug*ad* [tairis sin](G600030/app1045.html) , annsin is [medon](G600030/app1046.html) dan [aice](G600030/app1047.html) moir sin. Et tinnscnaidh an grian eirgi an uair sin suas tar eis a celi as an inadh sin no co ted si annsa ced ponc d'Argeis & tinnscnaidh la annsin aris annsan inadh adubrumar. Et mar sin bith en [aithi](G600030/app1048.html) fhada annsan inadh sin o medon mi Septimpir co medon Mar*ta*.


Et mar sin, gebe neach do beth a *n-deiscert* na talman annsan inadh a m-beth [Pol](G600030/app1049.html) Antairticc .i. ludrach na firmaminte as a cinn co direach, dacithfedh cercall an line dhirigh ag impodh mar broin as a cinn; & in trat darachadh an grian sa line direach sa ced ponc da Libra, d'eireochadh si thoir [fa](G600030/app1050.html) talmain da neach da beth annsan inadh adubrumar & da thinnscanadh la do, & d'impodh timcill mar broin o [oirrcear](G600030/app1051.html) co tuaiscert & o tuaiscert co h-iartar & o iartar co deiscert & o deiscert co h-oirrcer na firmaminte.


Et mar sin ni fanann ag sir dhul timcill gan dul fai don inad adubrumar no co tet si annsa ced ponc da Caipricornus & ar m-beth di annsa ponc sin as airdi a fedann dul don inadh sin doni da chuit don la fada sin & ni fanann ag isliug*ad* tar eis a ceili no co tet sa ponc deighinach do Pisis & cuirid dered ar in la annsin & bith an la sin ann o medon Seiptimpir co medhon Marta. Et annsin, an trat tet grian annsa ced ponc d'Airgeis, tinnscnaidh an [aithi](G600030/app1052.html) an t-inadh sin adubrumar do dorcug*ad* & bith an grian annsin ac dul timceall & ac isliug*ad* tar eis a ceili fo talmain no co tet si annsa ced ponc do Cainnsir innus nach fedann si beth nis isli don inadh sin & as annsin as [medon](G600030/app1053.html) dan aithe mhoir sin. Et ni fanann an grian ag erge aris tar eis a celi no co tet annsa ced ponc da Libra & tinnscnaidh an la fada cedna aris & bith an aithe adubrumar ann o medon Marta co medon Seiptimpir.




---

p.146


Do na gaethaib, cred iat & casa ticit siat.
-------------------------------------------


### [Asserunt](G600030/app1054.html) antequi philosophi etcetera.


Oir aderaid na feall*samain* arsanta co fuil Eurus t*e* tir*im* & [Zephurus](G600030/app1055.html) t*e* fl*iuch* & co fuil Boreas f*uar* tir*im* & Auster f*uar* fl*iuch*. Et aderaid blod do na dochturib nach mar sin at*a* [Xepherus](G600030/app1056.html) na Auster ach gorab f*uar* fl*iuch* ata [Xepherus](G600030/app1057.html) & gor ab t*e* fl*iuch* Auster. Agus ni fedar-sa an do naduir [choitcinn](G600030/app1058.html) na n-gaeth na an da naduir na n-gaeth a cricaib airithe adubradar sin, oir daciamaid examlacht na n-gaeth a n-atarrach na cric oir ata Eurus & [Stepterus](G600030/app1059.html) fl*iuch* a cricaib ann & tirim a cricaib ele, gidh*edh* inneosad-sa naduir [choitceann](G600030/app1060.html) deimin na n-gaeth uile.


Oir an t-aer, ar na [tegadh](G600030/app1061.html) on grein, medaigter & letnaigter e & ataidh se & eirgid ceo d*ub* dorcha as in fhairgi suas isin aer & doni nel de tuas & an trat boineas an ceo sin risin aer f*uar* [tuas](G600030/app1062.html) [cumgigter co prap asteac e](G600030/app1063.html) & dab*eir* sin air sil*ed* & [leagad](G600030/app1064.html) & fertain da denamh [dhe](G600030/app1065.html) . An trat ceana tecmas an ceo sin na fairgi thuas ar in aer t*e* tir*im* fein & an t-aer a na celi & [tocar](G600030/app1066.html) suas iat let ar let co h-inadh an roigh no co [flaitimnas](G600030/app1067.html) an fuachta, [cumhgaidter annsin iat](G600030/app1068.html) & bit annsin aer. [Is i](G600030/app1069.html) naduir an aeir the & [naduir](G600030/app1070.html) an inaid fuair a contraracht ar a cele & ni [fuilngid](G600030/app1071.html) beth a n-en inadh & is uime sin telgidh an t-inadh an t-aer as & [bith 'ga teilgin & ag rith](G600030/app1072.html) o inadh co [h-inad](G600030/app1073.html) a gluasacht an aeir & as e an gluasacht sin an aeir an gaeth, & gach med bis an t-adb*ur* as a tic an gluasacht as moidi an gaeth. Adhbur ele as a tic an [gaeth](G600030/app1074.html) .i. an tan bis cath no troid 'ga tob*airt* ag imad na 


---

p.148




sluadh & ag imad na n-arm na n-gluasacht, & seitfedhac na n-daine, & cuit acu ac tethedh & an cuit eli 'ga leanmain, [rithid](G600030/app1075.html) an t-aer seimh rompa & togaidh se gaeth.


Et mas ail let an ni sin adubrumar [ar togail](G600030/app1076.html) na gaithi is an aer [fuar](G600030/app1077.html) tar eis a [teidhti](G600030/app1078.html) da derbadh co follus; gab baisin cugad & cuir uisci an a m-bed da orlac no tri ar doimhne & cuir soitec folamh gloine ann & lig doib mar sin [fedh na h-aithi co maidin a n-inadh](G600030/app1079.html) f*uar* egin & [dagebair](G600030/app1080.html) mocrac an soiteac sin lan d'aer [calcaithi](G600030/app1081.html) f*uar* & impodh a bel fai san uisci sin ata sa baisin & cuir iat le celi an inadh egin re teas [na greine](G600030/app1082.html) tar eis eirghi dhi, & in trat teidhfis an t-aer [tiudh sin](G600030/app1083.html) annsa gloine, fasaidh & [attaidh & lethnaidh](G600030/app1084.html) , & bidh ag iarraidh inaidh is mo & o nac fuil aigi inadh a rachad ach tri bel an t-soithidh sis annsan uisci, teit [fan uisci sin](G600030/app1085.html) sis & togaid e suas co bel an baisin. Et daciter e mar sin mar lan mara ag fas tar eis a ceili [no](G600030/app1086.html) co n-doirt*er* e uair ann tar in m-baisin amach. Et as e sin foill*sigh*es co fasann & co natann an t-aer da bi sa soiteac adubrumar. Et lig do mar sin aris no co ti an aithi ar cinn & mar imeocas [tes](G600030/app1087.html) an lae & ticfas fuacht na h-aithi cruinneochaidh an fuacht sin [an t-aer da bhi sa soitec cedna a na soitec fein](G600030/app1088.html) aris & calcochaidh e annsin & [tuitfidh](G600030/app1089.html) an t-uisci sin 'na inad fein aris.


Ma sedh o dani [an becan aeir sin](G600030/app1090.html) an fas mor sin, as derb gorab mor an fas doni an t-aer uile [no](G600030/app1091.html) cuit de na speir fein.




---

p.150


[Do na nelaibh, don toirnidh & don fertain & do na soidnenaibh](G600030/app1092.html) .
-


### [Sol maria & flumina terra usque loca](G600030/app1093.html) etcetera.


Togaid an grian as an fairgi & as na srotaibh & as na h-inadaibh fl*iuch*a eli dethaidhi & ceo nach fedtar d'faicsin [tre](G600030/app1094.html) na seimhe, acht mocrac no tratnona & an trat [tocar](G600030/app1095.html) suas iat annsan aer [the](G600030/app1096.html) scailter & lethnaidter & cumuscter iat ar fud an aeir sin oir as inann naduir doibh. An trat ceana [tocar](G600030/app1097.html) suas annsan aer f*uar* iat, dluthaiter & [cumg*ig*ter](G600030/app1098.html) asteac na celi iat & doni nel dib & mar as naduir do na netib cosm*aile* a ceili d'innsaighe, mar tiadaid na srota [isin](G600030/app1099.html) fairgi, tiagaid na neil as lugha acu sin, [oir is edroma iad](G600030/app1100.html) & is usa leo gluasacht d'innsaige na nel is mo, & doni en motar mor dorcha dibh & bith ainsein [tre](G600030/app1101.html) naduir te da beth aigi & in t-aer fuar 'na timcill a contraracht & ag [imrascail](G600030/app1102.html) re ceili.


Et an trat as treise don air & claides an nel ceanglaid & calcaidh a buird don taib amuith & doni sneachta dhe. Et mar *sin* an trat bis an [teasbach](G600030/app1103.html) astigh annsa nel ar na timcull*ad* amuith ag an fuacht & a nel ar sicc & ar cruadug*ad* 'na thimcill, *da* siredh da rer a nadur*a*, inad ina fasfadh & ana [n-atfadh](G600030/app1104.html) & an lethnocadh & o nac liginn a nel daingin do an t-oibriug*ad* sin da deanamh [crothaid e](G600030/app1105.html) co cumhachtach & brisid & teid fodhair mor aduatmar as an m-brisidh sin re n-ab*arthar* toirrnec & le treisi na b*rig*i le n-dentar an brisidh [sin](G600030/app1106.html) teit soidhnein & teinntec as in m-brisid sin & tuitidh as in m-brisidh sin minrainn beca an neil sin ar m-brisidh & ac bualad fa ceile. Ac teacht anuas [minbrisid](G600030/app1107.html) fein a ceili aris & mar roitid an chuit is foicsi don talmain don aer bainid teas 


---

p.152




an inaidh sin a [cnapain](G600030/app1108.html) corra dib & doni cruinn iat & titidh na clocha sneachta & is iat na [minbainnedha](G600030/app1109.html) beca ferthana bis trit an sneachta an chuid sin bointer de ar [leaghadh](G600030/app1110.html) .


Agus gac med bis an t*eas* sin adubrumar & in fuacht as moidi an contraracht bis atorra & mar medaidter an contraracht medaigter an toirnec & an teinntec tic uadha. Et an cuit nach tic don nel sin [cum](G600030/app1111.html) talman lethn*aig*i se ar fud an aeir & doni teinnteach dhe. Et an cuit don teinntidh tic chum na talman scoiltidh si cnuic & sleibti & tollaidh an talam & marbaidh daine & ellach.


Agus da derbad gorab on contraracht adubrumar tic an toirnea*c* da [cuiridar](G600030/app1112.html) na feallsamain a eisimplair [air sin](G600030/app1113.html) , on an trat curtar [duilleog](G600030/app1114.html) glas ar [teinid](G600030/app1115.html) , suil loiscter i ar m-buain an tesa re, brister hi maille *re* fogar. Et mar sin an trat curtar iarann d*erg* a n-uisci, bainid contraracht an da ni sin fodhar lan mor astu. Ma sedh o dani contraracht na corp m-bec an fodar so, is mor an fodar as coir do na corpaib mora da denamh.


Et is lia toirneac & teinnteach & soighnein isin earrach [&](G600030/app1116.html) isin fogmar [na](G600030/app1117.html) is na h-aimseraib ele oir as idir an samrad te & an geimredh fuar atait an da [aimsir](G600030/app1118.html) sin. Et na neil togas seididh na gaeithe don talmain suas is in aer ata f*uar* fl*iuch* cael seimh gan teas gan tirmaigeacht ach an med bis is *na* nelaib sin fein, ni fuil contraracht acu.


Et [dealaid](G600030/app1119.html) an chuit trom bhis is na nelaib sin reodh na[16](javascript:footNote('G600030/note016.html')) m-bainnedhaib & do ni fertain de. Et an trat teagmhas an nel sin ar in aer te, [tanaidh](G600030/app1120.html) se e & doni aer dhe [aris](G600030/app1121.html) & tre asaenta contrarachta t*easa* & f*uachta*, tir*me* & fl*iche* an aeir sin doni nel mora duba dhe & doni fertain mor do na nelaib sin & duairib ann doni bainneda mora fertana & cloit sneachta [reamra](G600030/app1122.html) don adbur cedna & is annsan earrac & annsa fodhmar as minca bid siat; & an 


---

p.154




trat bit isin t-*s*amrad, tri mhed na contrarachta sin adobrumar da beth isin aimsir sin tar na h-aimseraib ele, as ann is mo an doininn. Et an trat teagmas gaeth mor re linn na don*i*nne sin ann, casaidh si na [neoil](G600030/app1123.html) a na celi tuas is in aer & ceanglaidh iat & cuiridh cumtha examhla orra & sailid na h-aineolaidh gorab [dreagana](G600030/app1124.html) iat & dacimaid an casad cedna ag a thob*airt* ag an ghaith ar luaitridh na talman.


Agus gidh a n-en taib doniter an toirneach & an teinnteach as tusca daciter an teinntec na cluinter an toirneach. Agus as i cuis dabeir sin, oir daci an radharc ar en t-slighe an raed ata a fogas do & an raed ata a fad uadha, mar nach tusca daci se an talam [na](G600030/app1125.html) na reltanna is faidi uadha a firmamint. Et ni mar sin don esteacht, oir is tusca dacluin an fogar as foicsi do na'n fogar as faidi uadha, & da cur sin a ceill do t-samladar na doctuire cedfaidh an eisteachta re broin, oir da m-beith cluas a poll na bron da c*luinfe*d gan deitfir gach ni do bedh a fad uaithi a fogus *di, o*ir is aml*aid* ata cedfaid na c*luais*i na h-aer noch ata 'na corp chael t-seim t-sogluaisti & is mo & is seime & is luaithi a gluasacht na gluasacht an uisci.


Et an trat donit brisead egin no bualad no fodhar ele is in aer, an t-aer as foicse don fodhar sin, gluaisidh se an fodar uadha d'innsaighe [na codac ele don aer & mar sin tar eis a ceile idir randaib in aeir no co t*et* an fodhar fa deoigh](G600030/app1126.html) annsa cluais & on cluais conuic an inchinn noch brethnaiges idir an fogar is mo & in fodar is luga & idir an fodhar a*s* seime & an fodar as reimhe.


Et da t-samladar ar in nos cedna cedfaidh [na sul](G600030/app1127.html) re stoc [noch ga](G600030/app1128.html) fuil ceann cumhang & gac fad [teit amach on ceann](G600030/app1129.html) sin as fairsingiug*ad* doni & is mar sin teit radarc na sul tri fedan fethach on incind cu mic imrisan 


---

p.156




na sul & bit ceann cumang eige annsin mar bis [ag](G600030/app1130.html) an stoc & bith a sirletnug*ad* amac no co n-gabann an fidair fecas [ris](G600030/app1131.html) & impoid asteach aris & b*eir*id leis cruth & cuma & dath an raeda sin chum na h-incinne.


[Do na h-ainminntib fastacha nemcedfadaca](G600030/app1132.html) .
-


### Uneuersa animata [insensibus ilia](G600030/app1133.html) etcetera.


.i. Gach uili ni neimcedfadach ag a fuil anim, fedaidh se fas uada fein[17](javascript:footNote('G600030/note017.html')), oir dacimaid is na coilltibh & is na cnocaib moran da chinelaib crann ar a fasann toradh uatha fein & gidedh as cruinne & as fearr oil*ter* toiraid na crann cuirid lamha daine na iat. Agus ni fhed crann is in doman fas ach 'na inad & 'na aer nadurtha fein. Agus as e sil na nethead neimhcedfedach ag a fuil anim fastach as cruth adburtha doib, oir dob ail le Dia darinne iat br*ig* silta da beth innta as a fasfadh a gne comhtrom comhcosmail fein tar eis a ceili co brach; & mar sin an trat tuites an sil sin asin talmain attaid se o fl*iche* na feartana ac tuitim air.


As e naduir an usci dul asteach is gac en corp a n-egmais cuirp daingin & bith an grian, ar tedhadh an t-sil sin, ac tarraing a uisceamlachta as, oir as i naduir na greine gac uili uisceamlacht do tharraing suas & fasaidh annsin as in gran, ar na tedadh & ar na fl*iucha*d, an geineamhain nadurtha da bhi a cumhachtaib folaidh don taib astid ann .i. adbur planda, comcosm*ail* ris in pl*and*a o tainic fein roimhe & bit an talam a sir tob*airt* fl*iuch*a do a n-inad na fl*iuch*a beires an grian uadha & fasaidh annsin br*ig* annsin on da ni sin re n-abar ainim fastac & fasaidh cuisle*nna* as sis re n-abar p*re*cmha in a tairriginn se oil*eamain* na talman chuigi. Et an trat tairrnges an grian na fl*iuch*adain cedna, tairrngid le an br*ig* folaidteach & crutaidter di gega & duill*eabar* & bl*ath* & toradh & 


---

p.158




bid a sir fhas mar sin no co scarinn d'fas & an toradh bhis air as a*s* sil & is adbur da letheid sin da plannda aris.


Tri gneithe ata do no nethib fasas .i. cuid dib da tet a n-duill*eabar* sa geimread & tic orra aris is in t-samradh. An dara gne na teit a n-duill*eabar* sa geimr*id* dib na sa t-samradh. Et tres gne teit as gus an en raed sa geimread & fasaid as a sil sin a letheid fein isin t-samrad.


Et adeir ardmaigister na feall*saman* .i. **Ar*istoteles*** gorab tri gneithe ata ar na nethib fastacha nemcedfadacha .i.[18](javascript:footNote('G600030/note018.html'))




---

p.3


An Irish Astronomical Tract.
----------------------------

Gloria Deo principio. Glory to God; whose beginning is without beginning, and whose end is without end, to the Person who existed always before everything, who will be eternal after everything, and to Him whom sense or human reason does not attain, to know or recognise what He is.And since He did not wish to remain for ever without manifesting Himself
to men, He instructed the learned in His works and arts, so that the worker
would be known from the works and the creator from the deeds, and therefore,
it is fitting for the learned ones to whom He revealed His secrets to
glorify Him above everything.Therefore, let us here begin to examine the difficult, obscure questions 
of the ancients concerning the works, and in particular *we
discuss*, with the help of the Creator of whom I speak, the
characteristics of the firmament and of the four elements, and of their
situation and their creation, with very just, forcible arguments and
indisputable, irrefutable reasons and conclusions.There are in this book, inclusive, forty chapters, and this is the first
chapter of them:—
1. The creation and manifestation of the firmament.
2. The four elements and their positions as the Creator ordained them.
3. Their motions and natures.
4. Their natures and motions.
5. The roundness of the four elements.
6. The disagreement of the four elements and the nature of them.


---

p.5

9. The rotundity of the earth and the knowledge of day and night.
10. The change of the sea and the rivers.
11. The characteristic of the earth and of the hills.
12. The characteristic of the waters and the motion of the earth.
13. The two burning volcanoes.
14. The flow and ebb of the tide.
15. The flood of the river Nile in Egypt.
16. The roundness of the firmament; its motion and its natures.
17. The revolution of the firmarnent and of the sun.
18. The change of the firmament.
19. The circles, lines and points of the firmament.
20. The difference in sunrise and sunset.
21. The knowledge of the size of the sun.
22. The light of the moon, which it borrows from the sun.
23. The eclipse of the moon.
24. The light of the constellations.
25. The eclipse of the sun.
26. The reason why the moon appears small, and large at its prime.
27. The characteristic of the light of the moon.
28. The number of the circles of the moon.
29. The two spheres of the sun.
30. All the circles and their motion.
31. The motion of the very great sphere.
32. The motion of the sphere of the signs.
33. The change of nature and of the seasons.
34. The number of the circles of Saturn and of the other planets.
35. The retrograde movement of Saturn and the other planets.
36. The sphere of the stars.
37. The number of miles around the earth.
38. The change of the stars in different countries.


---

p.7

41. The eight habitable regions of the earth.
42. The two places where the whole year is one day and one night.
43. The winds and their nature.
44. Thunder, clouds, rain and lightning.
45. The plants.

Firmamentum est,
etcetera.
--------------------------


The firmament is round according to its creation, and will come to an
end, and is ever ruled by its own Creator. There are stars in the seven spheres of the firmament, like firm nails in
a plank, without motion of their own, except the motion of the circle in
which they are. On that account they are not seen moving past each other or
after each other, but they always preserve one constant, everlasting order
at equal distances to and from each other. As a proof that that government is preserved by the Creator of the world,
and that it will depend upon His works for ever, they observe without
deception and without fail the course He ordained for them at the beginning
of the world.


As a proof of that, the learned have knowledge of every natural
phenomenon before it occurs, for they understand fully the motion of the
stars and of the planets for every year and every month and every week and
for every day and every moment. And besides they even have knowledge of the
seasons before they are entered upon, knowledge of summer and autumn, winter
and spring, and knowledge of everything that occurs naturally in them; and
that is a sure argument to prove that He who created the world is still
governing it, otherwise the things I have mentioned would have altered 


---

p.9




by this the function I related them to have; the stars and the planets would
be each at one time swifter, at another slower than the other, and at
another time stationary, not stirring at all. In the same manner the seasons
would come (one) instead of another, and there would be natural days longer
than one another. And, accordingly, the fruits of the earth would be growing
at one time and at another time would be non-productive. Accordingly,
everything in heaven and earth would be confused and confounded, neither
philosopher or seer knowing what to say of them. And, again, the result
would be that the exact sciences, which were drawn up concerning the motion
and stopping and number and position and order of the works of God, would be
set at nought.


Then, since we see that the exact sciences exist, and that everything
else occurs definitely in its own season, regularly and without confusion
according to one order, from this we know that He who created the world
still orders and governs it.


The four elements, and their
positions as the Creator ordained them.
--------------------------------------------------------------------


### Terra est in medio mundi, etcetera.


The earth is a round point in the very middle of the universe, fashioned
as a perfect sphere with no substance beneath to support it and the water,
as is natural, around it on every side, and, moreover, the Creator created
the upper part of the earth as a dwelling place for men and for the animals
that cannot live under water. And air surrounds both. And fire surrounds the
three of them, and the firmament is on all sides around those four.


The following is a description of those four elements:— 


---

p.11




Description of fire—A warm, dry, burning, light, liquid, movable body,
beneath which is the air. Description of air—A warm, wet, liquid, movable body, heavy in
comparison with fire, and light in comparison with water. Description of water—A cold, wet, liquid, movable body, beneath which is the earth, heavy in comparison with air and light in comparison with the earth. Description of earth—A cold, dry, heavy, immovable body that is
beneath the whole of creation, and thus the earth comes before the water and the water before the air and the air before the fire and the fire before the firmament, because the firmament is the outermost of them, as this figure below shows.


![to face p. 10](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face10.gif)


Dicunt philosophi,
etcetera.
----------------------------


The philosophers declare that there are three motions, i.e., the motion
from the centre, the motion towards the centre, and the motion around the
centre.


Motion from the centre is the motion that proceeds equally out from the
earth to every portion of the surrounding circle.[19](javascript:footNote('G600030/note019.html')) Motion to the centre is
the motion that proceeds downwards from the surrounding circle to the earth.
Motion around the centre is the motion that revolves with the circle[20](javascript:footNote('G600030/note020.html')), and 
from its prime motions is produced every motion that is in the world, and
one of these is the motion of the four elements, for some of them move from
the centre, and some to the centre, and nothing moves around the centre
naturally but the firmament or some portion of it. Of the two elements that move to the centre, earth and water, the motion
to the centre is swifter in earth than in water. Of the two elements that
move from the centre, air and fire, fire moves more swiftly from the centre
than air. And thus the elements that move to the centre are heavy, and the
elements that move from the centre are light. From these facts 


---

p.13




let us conclude that earth is the heaviest element and fire the lightest.
And although the water and the air are temperate between them, compared with
each other and with the other elements, heaviness and lightness are found in
them, for, although water is heavy compared to air, it is light compared to
earth, and thus though air is light compared to water, it is heavy compared
to fire.


In order to demonstrate this subject more clearly I shall make a figure
here below that will elucidate the meaning of these words. First I shall
make a figure of the earth and write A in the middle of it and I shall put
the letter B at the top of it, and then I shall make the circle of the
firmament around the earth and put C on the east side of it, and D on the
top of it, and E on the west of it, and F on the lower part of it, and on
the model of the figure there are two of the elemental bodies moving from
the centre to the surrounding cirde from A to B and these are fire and
air. There are also the two other bodies which move from the surrounding
circle to the centre, i.e., from B to A, and these are earth and water. The
third prime motion that exists, i.e., the motion around the surrounding
circle, which is the motion of the firmament, moves thus, from C to D and
from D to E and from E to F and from F to C, and that is sufficient for the
experienced.


![to face p. 12](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face12.gif)


Calor et frigiditas,
etcetera.
------------------------------


i.e., heat and cold, wetness and dryness, are the four principal
properties of the four elements, and they are accidents inseparable from
them, and two of these properties are active, i.e., heat and cold. The
reason why they are designated active qualities is that when we touch them,
they make known to us then immediately at that very moment their own
essence, for when we touch fire, it makes known to us then the essence of
its heat. So, when we touch hoar frost it makes known to us 


---

p.15




then immediately at that same moment the essence of its coldness. The reason
why we feel those immoderate things is that we have a moderate nature.


The remaining two properties are passive, and the reason why they are
designated passive qualities here is because they do not make known their
powers when touched, for when we touch a wet object or a dry object we do
not feel its wetness or its dryness suddenly as we feel the heat of the fire
or the cold of the hoar frost. That is why some of those properties are said
to be active and some passive. Every body from the sphere of fire downwards
is compounded of these (qualities) and they themselves (the bodies) are
simple, even though they are said to be compounded of their own properties
as hot, dry fire is a compound of those two properties *i.e.,
of heat and dryness*, since it is those two properties that
preponderate in fire. And air is a compound of dryness and dampness, because
it is they that preponderate in it, and thus is the preponderance of the
other two elements with regard to their own properties. Although these four elements are compounded of the principal properties,
they are termed simple in comparison with the elemental bodies that are
compounded of themselves. Thus these four are both compound and simple.
Simple compared to every object that is compounded of themselves. Compound
compared to the prime qualities which are essential. Thus it is fitting for
a simple body to have a simple motion, and for a compound body to have a
compound motion.


And it is clear, that every body in which heat preponderates, moves from
the centre upwards; and every body in which cold preponderates, moves in the
direction of the centre. It is the heat that causes lightness in the natural 


---

p.17




bodies and it is the cold that causes heaviness and it is the dryness that
causes rapidity of movement towards their natural place in light bodies. In
the same way dampness causes slowness of motion in the bodies in which it
is. From these statements we conclude that it is the nature of every one of
those elements to remain in its own natural position in which is the end of
its own motion, because if one of those elements were displaced by force
from its own natural position, the nature of it would draw it again to the
same position.


Terra est in medio,
etcetera.
-----------------------------


The earth is in the very middle of the firmament as a centre for the
descent of heavy bodies, i.e., a middle point in a round thing. As I mentioned, the natural position of the water is around the earth,
and if it got space without obstruction from the earth, since it is a heavy,
liquid, movable body, it would not stop until it would reach the centre of
the earth, and it would remain there, because that, as we mentioned, is the
last point of the motion of heavy bodies. And the parts of the water are
pressing against each other, seeking the centre of the universe as a natural
position for themselves if the firmness of the earth permitted them. Since
the earth is round and firm, contending with the water, preventing it going
to the centre, the water must be spherical around the earth, thus the other
two elements that move upwards from the centre to the surrounding circle
have a round shape.


For fire, on account of its lightness, keeps drawing upwards until the
firm indestructible sphere of the moon meets it, and since it cannot pass
it, it keeps and covers itself[21](javascript:footNote('G600030/note021.html')) under the round axle of that circle,
therefore it must itself be round as is the circle of the moon that 


---

p.19




envelopes it (the fire) inside in itself. That circle is the last course of
the motion of light bodies. What makes the air spherical is that it has the
surface of the spherical water forced up (?) into its lower embrace (?) and
the upper part of the air itself is in the lower embrace (?) of the fire,
and since the fire and the water are spherical according to my proof, the
air which is enclosed by them must be spherical in accordance with the shape
of them. Such is the position of those very close elements in each other's embrace
(?), that nothing else can be between them, therefore there can be no vacuum
in the whole of creation.


Notum est unum quodque
elementorum, etcetera.
---------------------------------------------


It is clear that each of the four elements are opposed to each other in
their natures, their positions and their motions, for of all things that
move from the centre, fire is swiftest, and likewise, of all the things that
move to the centre, earth is swiftest; thus, earth and fire are opposed to
each other on account of the heating properties of fire producing lightness
in it, and on account of the cold properties of earth producing heaviness in
it. Observe, when we say that earth and fire, or two other elements, are
opposed to each other, that it is the properties of the elements that are
understood then to be opposed to each other and not their substances, for
the philosopher says in the Liber Praedicamentorum,
‘Substanti nihil est contrarium’, —the substance has nothing of contrariety. Thus when we say that fire is hot and dry, and earth cold and dry, the 
heat and cold of those two elements are opposed to each other; while they
are in agreement with each other, inasmuch as the dryness effects speed in
them.




---

p.21


Thus air and water agree with each other and are opposed to each other.
They agree in the passive properties, i.e., the dampness that is the cause
of tardiness in both. They are opposite in the active properties, i.e., the
heat which is the cause of lightness in air and coldness which is the cause
of heaviness in water. Thus fire and water are opposite to each other in
their active and passive qualities, since fire is warm, dry, swift and
light, and water is cold, wet, slow and heavy. Finally, it is clear that
things which have a direct motion remain in their own natural places,
provided they are not forced out of them. When one element is changed into another by the force of the second element, or when one element is displaced by force from its own natural
position, as soon as it gets an opportunity or a little help, or when there
is no opposition to it, it returns quickly and suddenly to its own nature
and its own natural position.


Again, it is clear that everything that moves from the centre is hot and
everything that moves to the centre is cold, and that everything that
accelerates the motion is unquestionably dry and that everything that
retards the motion is unquestionably wet. Thus the Blessed Creator created and arranged the world with its four elements.


Argumentum ad rotunditatem
terrae, etcetera.
--------------------------------------------


It is a certain indisputable argument to prove the roundness of the
earth, that the rivers run and flow over the surface of the earth. Because
if the earth were a flat level surface with no convexity on it, as ignorant
men have declared, the rain, which comes from the clouds and which is the
cause of rivers, would form 


---

p.23




one large permanent expanse of sea on the surface of the earth, and would
not flow from place to place as it does now. Therefore, since it flows and
does not remain in one place, let it be understood for certain that the
earth is round and convex. Another argument to prove the same thing:— If you journeyed from
the centre of the world to the North Sea, there would there be discovered to
you stars that you never saw in the centre of the world, and some of the
Southern stars that you saw in the centre of the world would be concealed
from you. So if you made the same journey to the South, there would be
discovered to you stars which you did not see in the North or centre of the
world, and the stars that you saw in these places would be concealed from
you. Thus it is certain that it is the convexity of the earth, rising behind
you on your journey, that discovers to you the stars before you, and
conceals from you the stars behind you.


More on the same subject:—In every place you are
throughout the earth, you see some portion of the firmament you did not see
anywhere else, and it is proved from that, that the curve around the earth
is spherical, and therefore the earth is in the middle of it. Of the same
subject still, I add that, on every course which the sun makes around the
earth, it illumines the half of the earth that is exactly opposite it, and
it is that light between the sun and the earth which is always day; and *I say* that the other half of the earth is always dark, owing
to the shadow of the earth, and it is that dark shadow which is always
night. Thus whatever course the sun makes around the earth, day follows it
and night flees before it to the other side of the earth.


Hence the people
over whom the sun passes see sun and day, and they who are at the 


---

p.25




other side of the earth see stars and night, therefore those things can
never be seen during the same course, i.e., sun and stars, night and day,
because when we have day on the upper part of the globe there is night in
the part beneath, and vice versa. Consider (?) carefully the expression
which I used—beneath the earth. For everything that is down underneath
the earth, is the earth or one of its parts, and everything that is on every
side of the earth, out from the earth, is above. Therefore the earth alone
with its parts is below and all the rest of the works of God, on whatever
side of the earth they are, are above. Thus on whatever point of the globe
people stand, their heads are up and their feet down. Whoever may declare
that the earth is a level plane without convexity, whilst the sun rises on
one side of it and goes down on the other, I say that that cannot possibly
be true, and that no reason or argument can be found to prove it; because if
this theory were true, the sun would appear small when rising, and according
as it mounted higher and approached nearer to us, it would appear larger to
us. It is clear to every intelligent person in the world that this is
untrue, since we see that it *the sun* is of equal size
in the east and west and north of the world.


From this it is proved that the earth, and the course of the sun around the earth, are spherical, and to make this more clearly understood, I shall make a geometrical figure here below, and first I shall make the round figure of the circle of the globe, and write E in the middle of it—in
the centre of it, and around that I shall describe a larger circle than that
representing the orbit of the sun and place A in the west and B in the top
and C 


---

p.27




in the east of it, and I shall describe a small circle representing the
circular body of the sun, beside each of those letters, and then I shall
draw three lines from the centre of the earth to the surrounding circle of
the sun, one of those lines to A, the second to B, and the third to C. And
it is evident to everyone who considers them that those three lines are
even—equal each to each.


![to face p. 26](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face26.gif)


Therefore the earth is equidistant from each,
wherever the sun is, at its rising or setting, or when it is at the highest
point of its course, and thus it is evident that the earth, and the circuit
of the sun around the earth, are equidistant. Whoever should declare as an argument against this that the sun appears 
distinctly larger when rising or setting than it does at the highest point
at mid-day, and that it is understood from this that it is further away at
mid-day than when it is in those other quarters, and that this proves that
the earth is a level plane without convexity, I reply *to
him* appropriately, in giving a solution for that argument, that that
often happens, but not always, and when it does happen the reason
is—when the sun is rising or setting, it draws up the moisture and the
rain and black wet vapours rise to a great height between us and it, and
then, when we look at the sun, that mist which is seen broadens and
amplifies the sphere of vision within it, therefore, according to the
denseness and materiality of that mist, does the sun appear larger through
it, than it would appear without that mist being present. As the day
advances, and the sun is at the highest point of the firmament with no mist
between us and it, then we see it with its own proper size.




---

p.29


The example is clearly illustrated in the case of the naked person under
water, because he appears larger to the sight under water than out of water;
although there is no proof in that, except the fact of the wet dense water
spreading and amplifying the sight, and preventing it from passing directly
and naturally towards the person. The same reason is the cause of an object
appearing larger and thicker through glass than otherwise. Consequently old
people, who are losing their sight so that they cannot read small letters,
use glass spectacles to magnify the letters they read, and for the same
reason the sun appears larger in the early morning and in the evening than
at mid-day, as I have mentioned.


If any ignorant person should make the same statement, i.e., that the
earth is a level plane and the sun a round orb *moving*
around the earth, and that the people of the world in general can see it at
the same time as it would rise in one place, I should say that that was
false, if it were stated. To understand it, imagine two cities in your own
mind, one in the east and the other in the west of the world, and imagine if
the earth were a level plane without convexity (as this opinion has hitherto
maintained), that the people of the city in the east of the world would see
the sun rise in their own proximity as a large mass, and, having traversed
its circuit, they would see it setting in the west in a smaller mass. Vice
versa the people of the city in the west of the world would see the sun rise
as a small mass, on account of its being distant from them, and set close to
them, a much larger mass on account of its proximity to them. Similarly the
first half of the day would seem shorter to the people of the eastern city
than the latter half. In the same manner the latter half of the day would
seem shorter to the people of the western city than the first half. We, and
the 


---

p.31




learned, have an unquestionable proof that the day is of equal length at
equal distances from the middle point of the day at those two cities, and in
every place in the world, and that it is error and lack of knowledge which
caused the other opinion to be upheld. It is clearly proved from that
equality of the first and last half of the day that the sun moves in a round
orbit about the round earth.


To further illustrate this subject, and to confute that theory, I will
make a geometrical figure here below. First I will draw a straight line
called the surface of the earth, and above it a circle, which I will call
the path of the course of the sun, and I will make a diagram of a city on
the eastern end of the line and write the letter A above it, and in the
western end of the same line I will make a diagram of another city and write
B above it, and C at the point of the rising of the sun, and D at the point
of its setting, and E at mid-day of the eastern city, and F at mid-day of
the western. Consequently when the sun rises at a point C, and advances to
E, the first half of the day in the eastern city is spent, and the second
stage, from E to D has not arrived, and again when the sun rises at a point
C and advances to F, the first half of the day in the western city is spent
and the second stage from F to D has not arrived, accordingly day at each of
those cities would have one part longer than the other, because it is much
longer from E to D, the last part of the day in the eastern city, than from
C to E, the first part of the day in the same city.
Again, it is much longer from C to F, the first part of the day in the
western city, than from F to D, the last part of the same day. And it is
evident to everyone on earth who 


---

p.33




wishes to examine it closely that that is untrue, therefore the statements
out of which it arises are erroneous, i.e., that the earth is a level plane
without convexity, and therefore, in the interests of truth, it is declared
that the earth is convex and spherical.


![to face p. 30](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face30.gif)


As a proof that it is true, the sun does not set in the same place in
regard to any two cities in the world, and, if you change your position, you
change the sunset in regard to you. As a proof of that:—If you were in
the city of Jerusalem, in regard to you the sun would set in Rome, and if
you were there, it would set in the west of France, in regard to you, and on
your being there, it would set in the west of Spain in regard to you. After
that some place in the Atlantic Ocean would conceal it from you, and if sea
could support you, and if you could follow the sun, it would change its
setting in regard to you every day that you would follow it, until at last
it would set in the place in which you saw it rising, when you were in the
city of Jerusalem.


It is certain there is no difference in the sunset, but the convexity of
the earth constantly coming between us and it *causes
it*, because if the earth were a level plane according to that theory
just mentioned, there would be only one place where the sun would rise in
regard to the inhabitants of the world, and one place where it would set.
Consequently since there are a number of places where it rises and sets, the
earth must be round and not a level plane.


Therefore the Eternal First Cause who ordered it thus, blessed be He for
ever.




---

p.35


Maria et flumina diversa
loca mutant, etcetera.
-----------------------------------------------


i.e., the sea and the rivers change in many places, but it is not evident
that it happens until after many centuries. In this manner does that change
come about: as the waters break the hills, the earth of the hills falls to
the bottom of the waters, and fills up the place of the water, and since the
waters are forced out of their own position, they must occupy some other
place where they can get room. By reason of that the sea washes over and
submerges cities, towns and districts in which are the abodes of men in
valleys and low places near the sea. The moisture that comes from the clouds
is the cause of this, because when it falls, it flows constantly about the
earth rooting up the soil, and everything dissoluble and non-resistant that
it finds in the earth it carries from place to place in the rivers, and the
force of the rivers carries off the same things to the sea, and the bottom
of the sea is filled with them. On that account must the sea vacate that
spot and seek some other. The hills break the place whither they go, and
fill the valleys, therefore the dwelling places and domains of men change,
i.e., cities, lands, hills and valleys.


For it is a natural thing for water, since it is fluid, not to be always
in one place, but to travel from place to place. Consequently the rivers
carry the weakest soil with them to the sea, and from being a very long time
there it becomes firm and hardens and becomes petrified, and from the
constant beating of the waves beneath it and above it, the stones are carved
and polished and assume different shapes. Some of them become round, some
broad, some long and some short.


Likewise the rivers 


---

p.37




bring the sand and light stones to the sea, and they are gathered together
by the beating to and fro of the waves outside, and after many hundreds of
years it *i.e., the new earth, formed as described*
mounts and rises up over the sea, and hills and mountains are formed from
it, and the sea sends some of it towards other lands, and that is the
material from which cities and lands are formed. As a proof that it is true, there are to be seen in many places that have
been submerged, stone houses, castles, churches and carved stones and
planks, and many unquestionable signs from which it is proved that human
habitations were some time in those places.


Another fact to prove the same thing; there will be found plainly in the
summits of the hills and mountains, the paths and roads of the sea, which
resembles the ridges and the small irregular furrows that are seen in the
mud (?) of the sea when the tide has ebbed, also there are found many shells
and small sea-fish in the same places which have become hard, firm and
petrified. In the same manner the rain forms the mountains and valleys of
the world, because, when the rain flows into a place where it finds the soil
weak, it turns it up and forms a furrow in it, and the edge of the furrow on
either side falls, both sand and soil, into the channel by the strength of
the water and the water brings that with it to the rivers, and the rivers
carry it to the sea, and from the excess of rain of a very long period ever
falling into those furrows and constantly carrying away the soil and sand,
those furrows become valleys of the sea, and at last the earth is left in
hills and large mountains between them; and thus did the blessed Creator of
the world order that.




---

p.39


Calor et frigus opus
vehemens in terram, etcetera.
--------------------------------------------------


Intense and swift are the actions that cold and heat perform in the
earth. For in summer the heat of the sun warms the surface of the earth, and
since two contrary things do not endure to remain in the same place, the
cold flies before the heat to the bowels of the earth and that makes the
water which it finds under the earth cold, and on that account the water of
the wells is cold in summer. For the same reason, on account of the distance
of the sun from us in winter, the cold gains strength then on the surface of
this whole earth, and sends the heat flying in before it to the interior of
the earth—therefore the water of the wells is warm in winter; and when
in the summer, that cold is in the middle of the earth in all its strength,
it concentrates and compresses itself there, since the solidity and firmness
of the earth does not allow it to escape, and the further in it is, the
greater is its power and strength. In the winter when the cold of the
earth's surface sends the heat into the centre of the earth, and finds the
prisoner inside before it, i.e., the cold of the centre of the earth, they
act upon each other, and each of them seeks to destroy the other, and the
earth shakes; and it is to that shaking that terrae
motus, i.e., earthquake, is applied. It results from that shock that
the earth is cut and broken and great wind accompanied by thunder and noise
comes forth from that breach, and the wind carries with it sods of earth and
stones, and no person, animal, building, or any other solid thing that one
of those stones would strike, could escape its passing through them.


It often happens at a time of terrae motus
that the sun is darkened; and the cause of that darkness is that the strong
wind, that comes from that rupture of the 


---

p.41




earth, blows much dust (?) and sods with strength and force from it up into
the air, and that dust (?) is like a cloud between the earth and the sun,
and cuts off the light of the sun from the surrounding nations.


At another time the terrae motus breaks the
earth under the sea, and the wind that comes out of the water blows up into
the air and makes the sea rage in a terrible manner. The same shock tears
hills and mountains when there is substance under them (?), so that it
leaves deep dark crevices which appear bottomless.


Moreover, waters taste differently according as they are situated in
different places. Although all waters have the same substance, they adopt an
accidental peculiarity according to the taste of the earth in which they are
situate. Consequently the water that is in a stony, sandy place has a sweet
taste, and the water that is in salt earth has a salt taste, and the water
that is in muddy soil has a ... taste, and the water that is in acid
earth, where there are stones of sulphur or alum, or a place where there is
a brass or copper mine or other acids, that water has a bitter taste;
therefore, in accordance with the accidental peculiarity of the taste of the
soil in which the waters are, does the water change the accident of
taste.


Also, when the rivers that flow on the surface of the earth encounter
weak, movable soil they pierce through it and make secret paths for
themselves in it beneath the earth, until they meet immovable earth that
does not let them pass to this side or to that. Since, when, they thus come
in conflict below, the earth breaks overhead, and they are converted into
wells, according to the greatness or smallness of the underground streams
whence they come, or according to the 


---

p.43




quantity of the rain, from whence the streams come, since it is in
accordance with that that the wells fill and grow dry.


The cause of the saltness of the sea is its own antiquity and the
constant beating of the waves around its stones, and the course of the sun
being always above it, and because the sweetest parts of the water are
driven from it by the heat of the sun. For the heat of the sun draws the
most volatile (?) and sweetest part of the water of the sea up into the
clouds of the air, and from that are made the dew and the rain and the snow
and the hailstones and every other phenomenon from above. It leaves below
the heaviest, most solid, most material, and sourest portion. From its
similar nature, human urine is sour, for the same action as is performed by
the sun upon the sea, is performed by the bile upon the urine, as it strains
it and extracts the volatile (?) parts from it.


From the same cause water that receives much boiling becomes bitter, as
the heat of the fire vapourises (?) it. When that salt sea water receives
much boiling on the fire, or from the sun in warm countries, it becomes
condensed and solidified, and adopts the nature of the earth, and that is
the salt we use. That effect is produced by the excessive boiling, caused by
fire or by the sun vapourising them (?) *i.e., the
waters*. They are thus strained, and become solid and converted into
the nature of the earth in accordance with (their) solidity. And sometimes
fresh water, and particularly the water of rivers, is bound by the intensity
of the cold and converted into ice. The natural heat that is in the sea, and
the fact that it is still, does not permit it to take that binding upon
itself from the cold, because it is the nature of cold to bind everything
that flows and the nature of heat to dissolve every bound thing, as the
philosophers say.




---

p.45


Concerning the two Volcanoes,
Etna in Sicily and Vesuvius in Apulia, in the sulphurous region. Dico quod occasio huius ignis est, etc.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


I declare that it is the amount of the sulphur which is the cause of the
fire that is constantly burning, and this is how it is: When the fire begins
to perform an action in the veins of sulphur beneath the earth it continues
always to burn the sulphur and the earth before it, so that it cannot be
extinguished.


Consequently it makes holes and crevices before it in the earth, and when
the sulphur that is naturally in it comes to the end, it grows again. When
it grows, it turns again and burns it again, and that growth of the sulphur
and the burning of the fire are ever increasing, and the flame as it rises
from it, throws up many balls and masses of fire which come forth from the
substance of the sulphur, and they collect in one direction and mountains
are formed from them.


There is often heard a great, terrible sound from the wind going into
those hollows and blowing with the flame as it comes out. The waters that
are generated from these fiery places are hot, for as I have mentioned, the
waters receive *their* accident from the place whence
they come.


Luna visibiliter in mare,
etcetera.
-----------------------------------


The moon acts visibly on the sea and on the other moist things, for the
philosophers say that the sea never ceases flowing from the time the moon is
in the east of its circuit, until the time it is at the topmost part of the
circuit, and that it does not cease then constantly ebbing until it is
setting in the westerly point of its circuit, and that it does not cease
then constantly flowing until the moon is in the middle point of its circuit
beneath the earth; and from 


---

p.47




that again that it does not cease constantly ebbing until it is in the
easterly point of its circuit, and then it begins again flowing as it did
before.


Thus, according to the rising and setting of the moon, the sea never
ceases flowing and ebbing, and when the moon is in the same degree as the
sun, then its light is greatest and strongest, i.e., at the beginning of
each month, and it is then the ebb and flow of the tide are greatest. In the
second course *of the moon* the ebb and flow of the tide
are greatest in the middle of every month, when the moon has its full light,
facing us, for it is then the light of the sun is reflected down from the
moon towards the sea and brings about the ebb and flow of the tide.


Thus, too, the moon reveals the same acts in the marrow, brain, and blood
of men, because those three things are increased and decreased in the
beginning and middle of every month according to the course of the moon.
And, accordingly, diseases caused by bad blood, such as boils and many other
things, do not occur except at the beginning and middle of every month.


The actions of the moon are evident again in accordance with increase and
decrease, in the cucumbers and gourds and in every thing in which moisture
preponderates, according to the course of the moon. The natural cause of
that is that the moon controls moist things and particularly the water of
the sea, as lodestone does iron, for as lodestone attracts the iron to
itself, in the same way the moon attracts the water of the sea, and that is
termed the flow of the tide. When that attraction ceases, the tide turns
back to its own position, and that is termed ebb.


This ebb and flow are more visible in the east and west of the world than
in the Red Sea or in the African 


---

p.49




Sea or in the other seas that come from the Great Ocean, for some of these
have a straight course directly west, in others the tide flows directly east
through the power of the operation of the moon above them, consequently that
flow or ebb is not evident on the shores of the sea in those places.


To explain those operations of the moon as regards the ebb and flow of
the tide, I will make a geometrical figure here below, and first I will make
the round figure of the earth and divide it into four equal parts, and write
these four letters in their respective places around these four divisions, i.e., A*,* B, C, D,
and around the earth I will describe the figure of the sphere of the moon,
and place E in the east of it and F in the centre of the top and G in the
west and H in the centre of the lower part, and I will darken half of the
globe to represent the sea and leave the other half dry and white. Thus when
the moon is in the east of its own circle at a point E exactly opposite A
the tide then begins to fill and does not cease constantly filling until the
moon reaches point F that is opposite D, and then the tide begins to ebb and
does not cease constantly ebbing until the moon reaches point G which is
opposite C. It is ever filling until the moon reaches point H opposite D,
and it is ever again ebbing until the moon arrives opposite A.


![to face p. 48](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face48.gif)


Solent quidam imperiti
asserere, etcetera.
------------------------------------------


i.e., Some of the ignorant declare that the flood of the river Nile is
caused by the great rains that fall in distant lands, and as the river
fills, it bursts forth throughout the land of Egypt, and what rain does for
the other races, the water of the river Nile does for the Egyptians. I
declare that they have no argument or reason to prove that statement, except
one single theory 


---

p.51




because, as they see the other rivers of the world becomjng swollen by
rains, they think that the river Nile is thus swollen.


I will now prove that that theory is false, because if the rains were the
cause of the flooding of the river Nile, as they declared, it would become
swollen, with no special period for its filling, every time it should rain
heavily throughout the year as the other rivers become swollen. It is clear
to everyone who sees it that that river does not become swollen except at a
particular time of the year, i.e., in the month of August; but when there is
a plentiful fall of rain in some district near Egypt that river becomes
slightly swollen on account of that rain, because rain that falls in
districts distant from Egypt never increases the river Nile, on account of
the great distance of the source of the river from Egypt, and of the
exceeding dryness of the soil; consequently at whatever period of spring or
summer or any other season rain falls, the sandy, very dry soil and the
parching of the sun absorbs the rain water, and does not allow it advance to
the river; or, when the river is swollen from excessive rain together with
the great sudden floods, the heat of the earth around the river is so great,
that no sooner are the floods at their full, than the earth absorbs them.
The water in that river is seldom accidental, and it is always filled bank
to bank with its own water.


As a proof of that: if you made a trench two or three hundred miles long
through the dry earth, although you might pour a great amount of water into
one end of it, the earth would absorb it all before one drop would reach the
other end of it; thus does the parched, hot soil of the river Nile absorb
the waters that fall around it before they reach Egypt; consequently rain is
not the cause of the flooding of the river Nile.


Another fact to prove the same thing as I heard from my own elders: the
Egyptians thought at one period that the river Nile would not rise until the
fairest 


---

p.53




maiden of greatest beauty in Egypt should be cast into it; and because they
were obliged to get the overflow of the river to moisten the earth, since
that is what they have instead of rain, they used to cast the most beautiful
maiden that could be found in the whole land into the river in the beginning
of the month of August, and the hour after that the river used to be filled,
not on account of the woman being cast into it but because its own time had
come, and it used to fill all Egypt around it, and this kind (?) *of evil practice (?)* was in vogue in Egypt until the time of
Omar, King of Egypt. As he saw her die (?) by that rude, sinful, evil custom
(?) in the beginning of the month of August, he composed a short letter, and
said in it, ‘In the name of the merciful Lord, Omar, King of
Egypt. Life and health to the river Nile, and if it be thy will, O river
Nile, through the powers of God to pour thy water on the land of Egypt, we
pray thee do so now; and if it be not thy will, we have no reliance (?) in
thee.’ He put the letter then into the river, yet not on account of the
letter nor on account of the woman, but because its own time had come, it
overflowed its banks mightily and filled Egypt. Consequently, if that flood
resulted from those rains, since rain falls frequently during the year, the
river would become swollen frequently. Thus as that theory is false, I shall
disclose the true cause of the flood of the river Nile.


I declare that the source of the river is between the east of the world
and the southern quarter; between the west of the world and the northern
quarter, it enters the sea. The atmosphere of Egypt is warm and dry, so that
it but seldom admits wind or clouds or rain to exist in it. For 


---

p.55




although the surrounding countries experience wind, that air condenses and
contracts, so that it is accompanied by a very great storm that clouds or
rain enter the boundary of that air, and when it enters—which is
seldom—there is terrible thunder and very great wind and lightning,
which kills the flocks of Egypt. It is the nature of air in general to
spread and dilate, when it becomes warm; and when it grows cold to press
together, and it contracts and draws towards it everything like unto it. The
sea air is colder in the night than in the day, consequently, when the sun
reaches its mid-day position, through the heat of the sun the air spreads
and dilates and the wind blows from that time until midnight into the mouths
of the rivers which flow westwards into the sea, and (the wind) opposes the
rivers, and drives them forcibly back, and does not permit them to flow into
the sea until the cold of the night lessens the strength of the heat of the
sun; and, consequently, the conflict with the streams results from the heat
of the atmosphere and the flowing into the sea from the coldness of the
atmosphere. As the sea air is warmer in the day than in the night, and it is
owing to the proximity of the sun to us and its distance from us that that
change comes over the atmosphere; thus, at the time of the year the sun is
nearest to us, i.e., the summer, the sea air is hottest. Consequently on the
first day of the month of May until the sun enters the September equinox the
sea-breeze blows eastwards towards Egypt over the river Nile, and joins with
the air of Egypt to set it in motion and expel it from its own place.


Since
that air is dry, heavy, and difficult to move, it opposes the wind and does
not abandon its own place, and since the wind that is always blowing finds
no other course, it turns the river Nile forcibly back, and does not allow a
drop of it to enter the sea, and the same wind 


---

p.57




sweeps much of the sea sand forcibly into the mouth of the river Nile. Consequently, since the river is prevented from flowing into the sea, it
becomes flooded throughout Egypt, and that flood continues as long as the
wind has its own force, i.e., during the time I have just mentioned, from
the first day of May until the September equinox. Then the wind begins to
lose its strength, and the sun leaves its position directly over the sea,
and sinks by degrees in the southern quarter of the world. When the water of
the river finds no opposition from the wind as it did up to this it breaks
the mountain of sand and proceeds on to the sea and departs from Egypt; and
then the Egyptians plough and sow, since they are certain that the river
will not hinder them until that season again. Consequently it is evident
that they would be often hindered earlier than that season if the flood of
the river Nile resulted from rains.


The rivers of the other lands which flow into the Western sea experience
the same flooding although it does not happen to them so much as it does to
the river Nile, for there is only weak movable air, that does not contend
with the wind, and moves in every direction in which it is carried into the
other lands. On that account no other river in (other) countries is as wide
as the river Nile at its flood; and may He who created the river Nile be
blessed for ever in saecula saeculorum.


Dico sicut superius
ueraciter, etcetera.
----------------------------------------


I declare truly, as I declared in the beginning, that light bodies are
the bodies that move from the centre to the surrounding circle, and that
heavy bodies are the bodies that move from that to the centre, and that the
four elements and everything that is composed of them have these two direct
motions. Consequently, since the firmament does not move from the centre, or
to the centre, 


---

p.59




let it be understood that it is neither heavy nor light; because if it were
heavy, it would move to the centre; and if it were light, it would move from
the centre, and since we understand it to be neither one or the other, we
must assume it to be neither hot nor cold, because it is in hot bodies like
fire that lightness is, and since that is not light, as we proved, there
cannot be heat in it; and since it is in heavy bodies like the earth cold
is, since the firmament is not heavy, there cannot be cold in it. Let it be
understood again from that that the firmament is neither wet nor dry,
because wetness causes tardiness in the body in which it is, as it does in
air, which moves from the centre, and in water, which moves to the centre.
Thus dryness effects velocity in the bodies in which it is, as it does in
fire which moves from the centre, and in earth which moves to the centre.
Since there is neither swiftness nor slowness in the firmament, it is at no
time swifter or slower than at another, since God created it, but it had,
has, and will have one identical, steady, constant motion until the end of
the world. Consequently there is no wetness nor dryness in it from which
swiftness or slowness could result. Similarly it is the same motion that the
sphere of the constellations and the seven spheres of the seven planets
have, had, and will have until the end of the world.


There are some ignorant men who are uninformed as regards the works of
God, who say that the firmament was composed from the four elements, which
is clearly contrary to truth, for since the four elements possess a nature
different in everything from the nature of the firmament, reason can not
admit that the firmament could be composed of these. Because, as I said
before, it is the nature of the four elements, that some of them move
towards the centre and others out from the centre, and that that motion
occurs at regular intervals, and is slower at the end than at the beginning,
and that they (the elements) are permanent in their own places, and that
they never leave 


---

p.61




those places except by force, for each of the four elements is equal to the
other as regards length of existence and natural permanence.


Besides, the four elements possess various properties: heat and cold,
wetness and dryness, lightness and heaviness, swiftness and slowness, and
the nature of the firmament is directly opposed to those natures; because in
opposition to the vertical motion of the four elements there is the circular
motion of the firmament, and in opposition to the periodical occurrence of
that motion, is the perpetuity in the motion of the firmament, and in
opposition to the swiftness and tardiness of that motion, is the perpetual
slowness in the motion of the firmament. In opposition to that lasting
permanency of the four elements in their own positions, is the permanent
natural motion of the firmament in its own position. And as the four
elements and their state of permanency are of equal antiquity, in the same
way the firmament and its motion are of equal antiquity, and is without any
of these properties of the four elements, for there is neither heat nor
cold, wetness or dryness in it, nor lightness or heaviness, nor swiftness
nor slowness.


As the parts of the four elements are made, they never become corrupted
nor changed but (are) as they were from the beginning of the world, firm,
compact, indestructible, indissoluble, and thus they will be until the end
which the Creator ordered for them. Consequently, since the nature of the
four elements and the nature of the firmament are directly opposed to each
other, it is against reason and nature to say that the firmament was
composed of the four elements.


Another reason against the same theory: Every object that is composed of
contrary elements that work against each other and destroy each other, the
whole perishes in the end; for instance, men and animals, and everything
else that is composed of the four elements, in which the opposite properties
of the four elements destroy each other, and when one property prevails over
the other, 


---

p.63




the thing that is composed of them is completely destroyed. Consequently if
the firmament were composed of the four elements, owing to those opposite
qualities being mutually destructive, in the end the firmament would be
dissolved and would perish.


Thus since no sign of the dissolution is, has been, or will be, observed,
let it be understood that it (the firmament) is far from being composed of
the four elements. Thus may He who ordered it in such wise be blessed by
everyone who should behold it (?).


Quando deus firmamentum
creauit, etcetera.
------------------------------------------


When God created the firmament He ordained a full perfect motion that
never increases or decreases; since in twenty-four hours the firmament
completes its course without fail and without deception, and those
twenty-four hours are day and night.


God also made the sphere of the sun to manifest day and night and their
nature, their length, and shortness, and to manifest the regularity of the
heavens, and the difference of increase and decrease of heat and cold in
different places, in order to propagate creatures from each other, and to
fulfil the order of the world, because if the firmament and the sun moved
more quickly than they do, the days and nights would be shortened, the sun
would not have time to fulfil its functions, and terrestrial creatures would
refuse to grow; and if they moved more slowly than they do, night and day
would be lengthened, and, consequently, as the sun would be too long over
the earth, it would parch and dry up the surface of the earth, and would
permit nothing to grow in the soil. Thus men could not dwell in the southern
part of the world, as they do now, at a distance of sixteen degrees 


---

p.65




from the equator, because if the sun stayed too long, it would make that
place uninhabitable. Similarly at about the end of sixty-six degrees of the
firmament northwards from the same line, the region beneath them would be
uninhabitable on account of the cold of the very long night. The region from
the end of those sixty-six degrees is uninhabitable on account of excessive
cold as far as the region that is exactly under the sun's course. For when
the sun inclines towards the south side of the world, the cold increases so
much on the north side, that animals cannot dwell in it and the trees do not
grow. And so men or animals cannot dwell south of the aforementioned line on
account of excessive heat, and in the land that is nearest that line on the
inside are the negroes, who are darkened by the excessive heat of the
sun.


I mentioned above that there are none of the opposite qualities in the
firmament from which every corruption and dissolution results, and
consequently they have no opposite motion, since the motion of every body in
the universe must be circular or vertical or a compound of both as is the
motion of a cart (wheel ?). The circular and vertical motions are simple,
consequently every body, simple or compound, moves in a circle or
vertically. But circular motion is the motion that moves like a circle
around a centre, and vertical motion is the motion that moves from a centre
upwards (?) *or* to a centre downwards, and the three
motions are simple motions, and the circular motion is simpler than the
other two motions, because the body that moves thus is simpler than any
other body.


Those two motions that move to and from the centre are compound compared
to the circular motion, and they 


---

p.67




are simple compared to the motion of things that are composed of the four
elements, because, in reality, there is no compound motion but that one, and
though each of the four elemental bodies is composed of two qualities, they
are simple compared to the bodies that are composed of them (the elements).
Thus the circular motion, on account of its being naturally a perfect motion
without beginning or end, its course does not permit of being stationary or
of turning back. Not so is the vertical motion, which sometimes moves
independently of the bodies, for when some element is outside of its own
natural position, it moves suddenly back towards its own place and remains
naturally there; thus that motion has beginning and end, and the thing that
has a beginning and an end is imperfect; consequently the vertical motion is
an imperfect motion. As every perfect thing is superior to, and greater,
more permanent, and more noble than every imperfect thing, in the same way
circular motion in the same degrees surpasses vertical motion.


Additional proof of the same thing: the philosophers declare that the
motion that is foreign to one thing is natural to another, for instance the
upward motion of fire and of earth, or the downward motion of both. As every
non-essential thing is accidental, and every essential natural thing is a
substance, and as the accident and the substance are opposite to each other
in the same way the non-essential motion and the natural motion are opposite
to each other. Not only (that), but things that are below and above, right
and left, before and behind, are contrary to one another. And as everything
which has not contrariety is nobler than that which has, in the same way the
circular motion which has no contrariety is superior to every other motion I
have mentioned.


Additional proof of the same thing: everything that moves naturally with
a vertical motion can be moved 


---

p.69




by force and contrary to nature, but such is not the case with the circular
motion, for the spherical circular course which was ordered for it at the
beginning of the world, it was, is, and for ever will be preserving this
without fail, and without moving to anyone side of it. Consequently it is
clear that the circular motion is superior to any other motion, and more
constant.


Although each of the spheres of the firmament has a separate motion, they
all move together without opposition; for, if there were contrariety in the
firmament as there is in the elemental bodies, everything it effects in them
would cause a similar effect in the firmament, and thus the strongest body
in the firmament would change the weakest body into its own nature, and
similarly we should see the planets, and constellations, and the other stars
at one time larger, at another smaller than one another. This is not seen
now, and was not, and never will be seen. Thus it is clear whence those
changes, i.e., the contrariety in the firmament can be understood.


Thus is the great smooth, firm body in the firmament—a round sphere
like a ball, around its own centre, with its centre in a middle point, which
remains for ever in one point, and ever moving; and it is certain that the
motion is uniform since it has never made the least halt, and does not move
swifter or slower at one time more than another, and thus are the seven
spheres of the seven planets:—Luna, Mercury, Venus, Sol, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the fixed stars and the sphere of the
twelve signs, i.e., the sphere which we call the firmament. Thus were those
ten spheres since the time God created them, and thus will they be for ever,
as long as He wishes them to be thus.




---

p.71


The uninformed say that the primary properties of the elements, and the
properties of the things that are compounded of them, are contained in the
twelve signs and in the planets, and they declare that Aries, Leo, and
Sagittarius are warm and dry in accordance with the nature of fire; and
Taurus, Virgo, and Capricornus cold and dry of the nature of earth; Gemini,
Libra, and Aquarius warm and wet of the nature of air; Cancer, Scorpio,
Pisces cold and wet according to the nature of water. And they say that some
of those signs are movable, and some firm and immovable, and some neutral.
They say also that some of them are male and some female, some light and
some dark, and they say that some of the planets are good and some bad, and
that some of them are favourable and auspicious for good people, and others
unfavourable, adverse, and inauspicious for bad people. They say again, if
the sun were not hot in its own substance, it would not perform the
functions of heat which we see in terrestrial things, for it performs the
very same functions in terrestrial things as does fire (which is hot in its
own substance), namely, burning, parching and charring.


They say again, that if the moon were not wet in itself it would not
produce wetness in terrestrial things. Against this I declare that that
theory is scientifically incorrect and false; and I declare that the signs
of the firmament are neither wet, nor hot, nor cold, nor good, nor bad;
although it is from their union (together) and from their motion that they
produce those properties;
although (in themselves) they are not present in terrestrial things, because
they were all made from one substance and one material; and I will explain
this in more detail afterwards.




---

p.73


Sciendum est,
etcetera.
-----------------------


i.e., It is evident that it is not by their taste or by their odour that
the natures of natural bodies are known, for if they were recognised by
their colours, all white bodies would have the same nature, and everything
of the same colour or taste would be of the same nature; for we see that
snow and dough (?) and fresh cheese have the same colour although each of
them has a different nature. We see again that, although parsley and aloes
agree in pungency, they are not of the same nature since one is sharp and
the other mild; and in the same way we speak of smell. Consequently, not by
their taste or smell or touch, is the nature of the natural bodies known,
but by their positions and motions. The ill-informed declare that the
firmament changes in parts, or in its own entirety, with length of time,
although that change is not apparent to us, as we see gold, iron, the body,
jacinth and many other precious stones becoming discoloured (?) with age and
length of time, and changing in size, colour, taste and smell with length of
time, although we are not aware of that change when it is in progress, on
account of the great extent of time during which it is carried on.


I say to them in answer, that everything that is beneath the moon in the
sphere of the four elements undergoes change, and that change is of two
kinds—complete and partial—and those two changes concern growth
and decay, and the complete change is more 'evident than the partial. Every
body 


---

p.75




that is changed, undergoes that change in quantity or quality, and the
actions of the body make that change evident to us; for when an unsound body
becomes sound, and a sound unsound, it is the actions of that body that make
that change evident to us. So, when a heavy body becomes light, the actions
of the same body make that change evident to us. Thus, when a slow body
becomes swift or a swift slow, it is the swiftness or slowness of that body
that makes that motion evident to us.


Thus if the firmament were increased or decreased, its actions would
manifest that change to us. For were it augmented and extended, and the
constellations placed further from us than they are, we should see then a
smaller quantity of them than we do now observe, and there are many of them
which we see now, that we should not see then. Consequently, when it would
have closed in around the earth, the quantity of the stars would seem to us
more prodigious then than now, and then we would see many stars that we did
not see before. Now, since no one ever has seen these changes in the
firmament (for if he had, it would be found written) it is sure and certain,
that the firmament suffers neither increase or decrease, and is neither
narrowed nor widened.


Similarly if the firmament inclined to its right or to its left, or
forwards or backwards, or if it moved up or down from the position in which
it is, the centre, i.e., the earth, must necessarily change with it but the
earth cannot leave its own position, since it has no place to go; for 


---

p.77




every place around it is full of other bodies; and since two bodies cannot
on any account occupy the same place, the earth cannot leave its own
position to join (lit. along with) other bodies, and consequently the
firmament must be in a permanent, immovable, immutable position around the
earth for ever. If it were said that the change of the firmament resulted
from the failure or decrease of its substance, as the human body becomes
weakened by ill-health, in the same way the motion of the firmament would be
weakened, as is the walk of a sick man. In the same way the hours and
seasons would be changed—a thing that never happened, for they always
had the same course and have to-day, and will have it for ever. Thus, since the substance, or quality, or quantity, or position, or
motion, or time of the firmament, or of the rising, or setting, or
concealment, or revealing of the stars are not changed, and since that has
never happened, and never will happen, it must necessarily be one firm
immovable system that it had, has, and will have, as long as He who created
it desires, and it must have a nature other than the nature of the four
elements.


Qui perfecte circulos
lineasque etcetera.
-----------------------------------------


Whoever could perfectly understand the orbits, lines and points of the
firmament, would understand without doubt the nature of the whole firmament,
and the proper way to understand it is to consider its form and shape as it
is in itself, and ponder it carefully from the inside in your reason and
mind. The position of the first orbit of the firmament is as
follows:—From the eastern point to the central upper point above the
earth, and from that to the western point, and from that to the central
lower point beneath the earth, and from that again to the eastern point
whence it began at first. That circle is called orientalis and occidentalis, 


---

p.79




i.e., the eastern orbit or the western orbit, and is also cal1ed the orbit
of the straight line, because when the sun is in that straight line, day and
night are equal in the countries of the whole world. The situation of the
second orbit is from the point of the Arctic Pole to the upper point of the
firmament, and from that to the point of the Antarctic Pole and from that to
the central lower point of the firmament beneath the earth, and from that to
the point of the Arctic Pole whence it previously began. There are three
other names which philosophers apply to that orbit—septentrionalis, australis and meridionalis—the northern orbit, or the southern
orbit, or the orbit of the middle of the day. The situation of the third
orbit is from the eastern point of the firmament to the point of the
Antarctic Pole, and from that to the western point of the firmament, and
from that to the point of the Arctic Pole, and from that to the eastern
point of the firmament. This orbit is called circulus
terminorum or circulus signorum —the orbit
of the termini, or the orbit of the signs.


This is the position of the first of the three lines of the firmament,
from the eastern point of the firmament through the middle point of the
earth, to the western point of the firmament. The second line from the
central upper point of the firmament above the earth through the middle
point of the earth, to the central lower point of the firmament beneath the
earth. The third line from the Arctic Pole through the middle point of the
earth to the point of the Antarctic Pole.


Here below are the seven points of the firmament—six of them in the
six places where the three orbits I mentioned cross each other, and where
the six ends of the three lines I mentioned are. The seventh point is the
centre of the earth, which is the centre of the whole universe. The first of
these points is situated 


---

p.81




in the east of the firmament in the place where circulus
terminorum and circulus orientalis or occidentalis cross each other. The second point in the centre
top zenith of the firmament, over the earth, in the place where circulus orientalis or occidentalis and
circulus septentrionalis or australis cross each other. The third point, in the west of
the firmament, in the place where circulus orientalis
or occidentalis and circulus
terminorum cross each other. The fourth point, in the centre bottom of
the firmament, below the earth in the place where the circulus septentrionalis or australis
and circulus orientalis or occidentalis cross each other. The fifth point, in the north
of the firmament, in the place where the circulus
septentrionalis or australis and the circulus terminorum cross each other. The sixth point, in
the south of the firmament, in the place where circulus
terminorum or circulus septentrionalis or australis cross each other. The seventh point, as I
remarked, is the centre of the earth which is the centre of the whole
universe, where the three lines I mentioned cross each other; and that is
the situation and description of the three orbits and the three lines of the
seven points which I mentioned above. Whoever could understand them
perfectly would understand the nature of the whole firmament.


Concerning the different
sunrise and sunset in many countries.
--------------------------------------------------------------


### Sol prius Babyloni quam Egypto, etcetera.


The sun rises earlier in Babylon than in Egypt and (earlier) in Egypt
than in France, and, consequently, it sets earlier in Babylon than in Egypt,
and earlier in Egypt than in France. To explain this clearly, I will place
these three countries in a geometrical figure as an example of the rising
and setting of the sun in the 


---

p.83




other countries of the world, but I suppose a space of six hours to be
between Babylon and Egypt, and between it again and France, and in the same
way again between the other countries. Then I will describe a perfect circle
in the form of the earth, and a circle larger than that outside it
representing the orbit of the sun, and will place the letter A for Babylon
and B for Egypt and C for Africa, and I will write D for the sunrise of
Babylon and E for its noon and F for the sunset, and in the same way, B for
the sunrise in Egypt and F for its noon, and G for its sunset, and in the
same way again, F for the sunrise of Africa and G for its noon and D for its
sunset.


Thus, I declare when the sun rises at point D, it is visible to the
inhabitants of Babylon, and is concealed from the inhabitants of Egypt until
it reaches point E which is noon in Babylon, and sunrise in Egypt and
midnight in Africa, for then the sun rises with reference to the Egyptians,
yet it is invisible to the inhabitants of Africa until it reaches point F,
which is the end of the day in Babylon, and noon in Egypt, and sunrise in
Africa, because day begins then with reference to the people of Africa, and
*it is* evening with the Egyptians and midnight with the
people of Babylon. The Africans behold it until it reaches point D which
with them is the end of the day and is midnight in Egypt and the beginning
of the day in Babylon. And midnight in Egypt and the end of the day in
Africa are at one point. At another point is the beginning of the day in
Egypt and midday in Babylon and midnight in Africa. In the same way, at one
point is the beginning of the day in Africa, and midday in Egypt and the end
of the day in Babylon. In the same way again, at one point is midday in
Africa, and the end of the day in Egypt, and midnight at Babylon.


Thus, according to, the order of God, when the sun rises in some country
in the world, it sets in another,


---

p.85




and it is the roundness of the earth that causes that difference of sunset
and sunrise in the world.


Here follows the figure I promised to make.


![to face p. 84 (1)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face84.gif)


Concerning the size of the sun.
-------------------------------


### Rationes geometricae, etcetera.


The geometrical calculations of **Ptolemy**, the astrologer, prove the size of the sun. He says: The size of the sun must be equal to, lesser, or
greater than the size of the earth ; and if the sun and the earth were
equal, the shadow of the earth, i.e., the darkness co-extensive with the
earth itself, would travel out to the sphere of the fixed stars and obscure
them, and an eclipse, i.e., deficiency of light in the moon, would occur
every month throughout the year; for the earth's mass, which would be as
large as the mass of the body of the sun, would deprive the moon and the
stars of the sun's light, and there would then never be a moon, but constant
darkness from the beginning of the night until the end. Therefore, since the
moon is present and the stars are seen illuminated in the night, let it be
understood from this that the sun and the earth are not equal to each
other.


To make it clearly understood, I will make a figure of three circles
around each other; the outer circle for the orbit of the fixed stars, the
middle circle for the orbit of the sun, and the smallest circle for the
orbit of the moon; and the earth in the middle, and the sun down beneath the
earth in its own sphere co-extensive with the earth, and the shadow of the
earth opposite the sun on the other side of the earth, and co-extensive with
the earth passing out straight to the sphere of the stars.


![to face p. 84 (2)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face84_2.gif)




---

p.87


Si autem sol minoris esset
quantitatis, etcetera.
-------------------------------------------------


If the size of the sun were less than that of the earth, every
unpermissible insufferable thing I have mentioned, and more besides, would
occur, because the shadow of the earth would be constantly increasing in
size and width out from the earth to the sphere of the constellations, and
it would darken the greater part of them, and an eclipse of the planets
would occur every month, and an eclipse of the moon, as I mentioned, would
be in progress during the night until morning. Since, then, we have never
seen this, and never heard of it, and never found it written, the size of
the sun cannot be less than that of the earth. This figure below explains
this statement I make.


Necessario igitur fatendum
est.
-------------------------------


It must be admitted that the size of the sun is greater than that of the
earth, and that the shadow of the earth never extends up beyond the sphere
of Mercury. The shadow of the earth is conical in shape, with the broad side
towards the earth, while it becomes narrower by degrees, until it comes to
an end a little above the sphere of the moon. The same shadow obscures the
moon according as it spreads over it; for when the moon is in the north or
south of the shadow, it obscures the portion of the moon on which it is, and
when it spreads over half of the moon, the shadow obscures it completely.
However, we know, and we have found it written, that that shadow of the
earth does not reach the stars nor any of the planets, but only the moon
which is neighbour to the earth, and therefore all the planets, except the
moon, and the stars borrow light from the sun always; and thus he proves
that the sun is much larger than the earth, as this figure below
shows.


![to face p. 86](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face86.gif)




---

p.89


Luna nihil luminis habet
nisi *suscipet a sole*, etcetera.
----------------------------------------------------------


There is nothing light-giving in the moon except what it borrows from the
sun, and both are spherical like the figure of a round ball; for if they
were level planes, as the ignorant have asserted, when they would be in the
east or west of the firmament, only the edges of them would be visible,
whereas they would be completely visible at the top of the firmament. Since
they do not appear more clearly spherical in the highest point of the
firmament than in any other of those places, let it be understood that they
are spherical, and not flat. That spherical portion which we see in each of
them is only a hemisphere, i.e., half a sphere, and the other half is
invisible. Thus, it is clear that the sun, moon, planets, and stars have all
a spherical form, for from whatever side they are viewed, they appear
round.


As I have said, the moon has no light of its own nature, and it is dark
and polished (?) like iron which has been cleaned; and whatever light it
has, it borrows from the sun; and its sphere is the sphere that is nearest
the earth, between the heavenly bodies, and the sphere of the sun is the
fourth above it. And, although they are far from each other, when the moon
is beneath the sun in exactly the same degree as it, then it illumines the
upper part of the moon and the side near us is dark, and it is full dark
moon with us. Therefore we see nothing of the moon at that time.


When the moon leaves that exact degree in which it is beneath the sun,
and moves by degrees away from it eastward, then the light moves by degrees
westward.


The light which the upper part of it borrows from the sun, illumines the
lower edge of it, and then the moon is in its prime, i.e., with its first
light turned to us, for that is the first course in which we see it; and the
further eastwards it moves from 


---

p.91




the sun, the more does the light of the upper parts come round it from
above, and the further eastwards it goes from the sun, the greater the
increase of its light in the west, and the increase of its darkness in the
east, until it reaches the 14th day, because then it is furthest from the
sun, and is exactly opposite it on the other side of the earth, and then the
hemisphere which is nearest the earth is completely light, and the upper
hemisphere completely dark. Thus, it is never without its dark half and its
light half, whatever course it takes.


When the moon inclines westwards from the diameter of the sun, i.e., from
the straight line in which it is, to the other side of the earth opposite
the sun, the light of the moon beside us moves upwards by degrees, and the
same area of it is darkened at its wane as has been illumined at its prime,
and thus, as much of it as is illuminated every night for fourteen nights,
is darkened every night from then until the end of the month, until it is
exactly beneath the sun in the same degree as it *the
sun*, between it and the earth, and then the side towards us is dark
and the side above light. And to make this clearly understood, I will make a figure here below in
which I will place the sun to one side of the earth—the western
side—and the moon 14 degrees eastwards from it, a little over the
earth, and I will make it all dark except the western edge of it which is
nearest the sun, which shows it to be at its prime.


![to face p. 90](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face90.gif)


I will make again another figure in which I will place the moon at the
top of its own sphere at the end of the seventh day of the month, with half
of it light and half dark, and I will place the sun to one side of the
earth—to the west side.


And I will make moreover a third figure, in which I will place the moon
in the east exactly with its upper half dark and its lower half, which is
opposite the sun and the earth, light. I will place the sun as having set at
that time at one side of the earth, etc. Here yonder is the figure
itself.


![to face p. 90 (2)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face90_2.gif)




---

p.93


I will make moreover a fourth figure, and will represent the half of the
moon which is nearest the earth light, and the other half dark, as the moon
is on the tenth day of the month, and I will place it exactly in the east,
and the sun exactly in the middle beneath the earth.


After that I will make a fifth figure in which I will place the moon at
the top of its own orbit in the same degree as the sun, and represent the
upper half of it light and the lower dark. Here is the figure on the other
page.


![to face p. 92](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face92.gif)


Concerning the cause of the eclipse of the
moon.
------------------------------------------------


### Postquam argumentis, etcetera.


Having proved by forcible arguments and geometrical figures that it is
from the sun that the moon and all the stars receive light, we shall now
show whence comes the natural darkness upon the moon which is called an
eclipse; and I declare, approaching that subject, since the moon receives
its light from the sun, and there is nothing else to deprive it of that
light except the earth, it is the shadow of the earth, which is exactly
between the sun and the moon, which envelopes the moon and deprives it of
the sun's light; and that obscuration of the moon by the shadow of the earth
is an eclipse. It happens always, without fail, every single month, because
every time the moon arrives at the head or tail of the Dragon, it lies in
the straight line exactly opposite the sun and the earth, and exactly
penetrates the shadow of the earth, and is totally obscured. When the moon
advances to the south or north of that shadow, It avoids the total eclipse,
and on whatever side it meets that shadow, the portion of it which is
beneath that shadow is eclipsed.


Therefore, there are two kinds of eclipse, i.e., eclipsis
universalis, i.e., a general eclipse, and eclipsis 


---

p.95




particularis, i.e., a partial eclipse. Wherefore it does not begin at
the same time in every place, and is not of equal size in every place, since
it is not of the same size in the east as in the west, and neither is it the
same in the south of the world as in the north. On that account it *the eclipse* does not appear the same to people in the
countries of the world, and they on whom day rises do not behold it, though
it is present naturally at that time. Afterwards I will speak of the eclipse
of the sun in its own place.


The eclipse of the other planets:—One of the planets themselves is
the cause of the eclipse of the others, for the lower planet obscures the
higher. In the same way, the moon obscures them all, each at its own time.
To explain better what I have said of eclipses, I will make a geometrical
figure here below, from which the eclipse will be clearly
understood.


![to face p. 94](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face94.gif)


Manifestum est,
etcetera.
-------------------------


It is evident, as I have stated, that the light of all the stars comes
from the sun, and that they are round like a ball, like the sun and moon,
and the reason why their roundness is not evident as is the roundness of
those other two, is because they are all above the sun, far from us, except
Venus and Mercury; and half of each star which is above the sun is illumined
by it *the sun* at whatever point of their own orbit
these stars are; i.e., whether they are in the same degree as the sun or
whether they are far from it, or near to it, or in front of it, or behind
it, from it they all receive light. Every time any of these planets, that
are above the sun, are directly in front of it, then their light is most
prodigious in front of the earth for two reasons. The first reason: —A
person who is in darkness thinks the light he sees outside the darkness more
brilliant than a person who is in the light itself, and accordingly the
person who is in the thick dark shadow of the earth at night, as he beholds
the planets that are directly in 


---

p.97




front of the sun, considers the light prodigious on account of the intense
darkness which surrounds him. Another reason: when any one of the planets is
placed directly in front of the sun, it must revolve in its own orbit, and
its light is the more brilliant because of that revolution, for it is the
nearest to the earth; and this never happens in the case of the planets
above the sun.


The planets that are beneath the sun, i.e., Mercury and Venus, never
arrive opposite the sun and are never in the quadrate aspect. Not thus are
they, but near it always, before or behind it, and the nearer they are to
the sun the less is their light, and the further they are from it the
greater the light.


The light, however, of the planets that pass opposite the sun, is always
increasing by degrees, until they reach the place beyond which they cannot
go, and where they must turn towards the sun again, and during that backward
motion, their light is on the decrease until they are in the same degree as
the sun, beneath it, then the half of them nearest the sun is light and the
other half dark, as I said in reference to the moon, when it is in the same
degree as the sun; for it is never visible except when it is at least
fourteen degrees to one side of the sun, i.e., at its prime, or at its
extreme wane.


Those planets are also after the same manner; for when they are to the
east, twelve degrees in front of the sun turning towards the sun, or when
they are in motion twelve degrees to the west of the sun they appear horned,
after the manner of the new moon, and when they come away from the sun, as
they cannot advance further, they have their full light, although that
change is not evident to us as is the change of the light of the moon, as
they are much further from us than the moon. Therefore, when their light is
great, their bulk is small on account of their distance from us. When they
are nearest the earth, the beam that comes from them appears 


---

p.99




now long, now short, and now quadrangular, according to the shape of their
body. When they are furthest from the earth, not thus does the same beam
appear but round, as is fire distant from you; whatever shape the flame
naturally has, narrow or long or broad or short, not so does it appear when
far from you, but round.


Here below is the figure that will clearly shew how the sun illumines all
the stars, as well as the planets; and the meaning of this figure shows
there is the furthest distance they can go from the sun, i.e., in no place
in the universe that is not brightened and illuminated by the sun.


![to face p. 98 (1)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face98_1.gif)


I will make again another figure to show how Venus and Mercury, which are
beneath the sun, are illumined by it, and how they come into the same degree
as the sun, as near as they can go to it.


I will make again the third figure here to explain better than this, how
Venus and Mercury are illumined by the sun, and I will place them in the
east of its orbit above the earth, so that they cannot go a greater distance
from the sun than they are in front of it at dawn.


Now I will make the fourth figure to demonstrate better how they obtain
their light, and I will place them on the western side of the sphere above
the earth at the place in which they are continually (?) at evening
time.


![to face p. 98 (2 and 3)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face98_2_3.gif)




---

p.101


Dico quod Luna Soli causam
eclipsis, etcetera.
----------------------------------------------


I declare that the moon is the cause of the eclipse of the sun, because
its sphere is the lowest of the heavenly spheres, and the sphere of the sun
is the fourth sphere above that, and, accordingly, every course it makes is
beneath the sun. When it arrives at the head or the tail of the Dragon, in
exactly the same degree as the sun, without inclining to the south or to the
north, it deprives us of the light of the sun, and that darkness is an
eclipse. When, however, it *the moon* inclines to its
right or left side, and does not move exactly in the head or in the tail of
the Dragon beneath the sun in the same degree as it, it avoids producing an
eclipse. That darkness which is seen on the sun, when there is an eclipse,
is the body of the moon; therefore, it is evident that an eclipse never
occurs, except when the moon is exactly beneath the sun in the same degree
as it. It always begins to the west side of the sun and finishes in the
east. When the moon moves outside that exact degree of the sun, it sometimes
obscures a portion of the sun from us. Therefore, an eclipse of the sun is
of two kinds as is an eclipse of the moon, i.e., total and partial.


The eclipse varies in various lands, for when there is an eclipse it is
not visible to the same extent in every land, for there is one land in which
it is visible, and another in which it is not, and one land in which it is
more visible, and another in which it is less visible; in this
wise:—If the sun were in the straight line up over our heads and the
moon in the same line beneath it, it would necessitate an eclipse for us. If
a person were at the same time in the east of the world, looking at the sun,
he would imagine he saw it in the west of the world, and if there was
another person at the same time in the west of the world beholding the sun
he would imagine he saw it in the east of the world, but neither of them see
the eclipse of the sun 


---

p.103




because the sight of each would pass exactly between the sun and the moon,
and, consequently, the moon, or any dark body, even though it were in the
straight line beneath the sun would not deprive them of the sun's light,
because of their distance from that line. At the point (?) in which the sun
is thus obscured, the stars are visible in the day-time, so great is the
extent of the darkness.


An eclipse of the sun is of shorter duration than an eclipse of the moon
on account of the rapidity with which each passes the other, but not so is
an eclipse of the moon, which is caused by the earth. There is nothing
interfering with it but the course of the moon above whilst the earth is
stationary.


If anyone opposed me in this by saying that the moon is not the cause of
the eclipse of the sun, and that if it were as I said, it would not be more
fitting for it to cause an eclipse than for Venus and Mercury when they are
in the straight line beneath the sun, I answer him thus: When Venus and
Mercury are beneath the sun in the same degree as it, it is as regards
longitude, but then there is a decrease in them in size and width (sic).[22](javascript:footNote('G600030/note022.html')) The
same thing often happens the moon, for it is often beneath the sun in the
same degree as it, as regards longitude, and yet it is far from it in
latitude.


In the same way an eclipse of the sun is not caused by the stars of less
magnitude than the moon, or (by stars) nearer to it, because, when a small
body is placed under a large body near it, the nearer it is to it the less
of it it conceals, and when it is placed far away from the large body, and
near the sight which is looking at both, the further it recedes from the
large body, and the nearer it approaches the sight, the more does it conceal
the large body; so that in this manner a wild apple would conceal the body
of the sun from the sight.


To explain this, I will make a figure here below 


---

p.105




in which I will make a large circle, like the orbit of the sun, and will
place the sun up at the top of it, and will make another circle inside that
like the orbit of the moon, and place the moon itself up at the top of it in
the straight line under the sun and I will make the third circle inside that
in the form of the earth and place the letter E in the centre of it and
assume it to be the point in the earth whence men behold the sun, and put A
in the east and B in the west of the sphere of the sun, and place the human
sight in the straight line from E and from A and from B towards the sun.
Therefore the people in E see the eclipse of the sun clearly, and the same
company that are in A and B see the sun clearly without an eclipse because
the moon is too small compared to the sun. It does not conceal the sun from
them, and consequently on account of their distance from the sun their sight
passes easily above the moon towards the sun.


![to face p. 104](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face104.gif)


Luna non videtur priusquam,
etcetera.
-------------------------------------


The moon is never visible, until it is twelve degrees from the sun,
because the brightness of the light of the sun prevents us seeing it. And it
is twelve degrees from the sun when it appears facing us in the beginning
and then it is at its prime, i.e., at its first light. And the sun sets in
regard to the inhabitants of the east of the world when the moon is eleven
degrees from it before it is seen, while to the inhabitants of the west of
the world it is shining clearly, when the moon is twelve degrees or more
from the sun. Therefore the inhabitants of the west of the world see the
moon sooner than the inhabitants of the east by one day. Consequently when
the moon is twelve or thirteen degrees from the 


---

p.107




sun, or a little more, the visible size of it is small, and when it is from
eighteen to twenty-three degrees from the sun then its size is
greatest.


The characteristic of the
light of the moon and of the constellations. Their characteristic (sic).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


### Dico quod Luna ac sidera, etcetera.


I declare that the moon and the stars appear at the same time and season,
bright in one country, and dark in another. The reason why the people of one
country see them with their light, is because the night is on their side at
the same time. The daylight prevents the people of the other country from
seeing them, yet it is not the daylight that causes that, but the weakness
of men's sight. Thus the moon and the stars are concealed from the country
in which the sun is visible during that period, and when it *the sun* is concealed, it renders them visible. And thus is,
fire and every other light-giving object; though they are far from you at
night their light is prodigious and though they were near you in the day
their light is not great. Then if you mean to see the stars by day, go in
the morning or evening into a dark deep pit, and look up, and you will see
them clearly over your head at the top of the firmament; also you will see
them clearly at the time of an eclipse of the sun.


Now I will describe a circle for the orbit of the fixed stars in which I
will place a diagram of many of the great stars. Inside of it I will make
another sphere for the sphere of the sun, in which I will place the sun
itself, and inside of that I will make another sphere for the sphere of the
moon, in which I will place the moon itself at the end of the thirtieth day
from the beginning of the month. I will make a fourth sphere within these,
and write I in the centre of it, and A in the east of it, and B at the top
of it, and C in the west of it, and D at the bottom of it, and let four
cities be represented by 


---

p.109




the four small circles on the orbit of the earth and four letters which mark
these four cities; E the eastern city and F the upper one, and G the western
city, and H the lower one; and thus when the sun sinks, its light leaves
city F and the beginning of night approaches it, then it is midnight in the
city E, and at that time the inhabitants of the other city behold the stars
with their full light and the moon rising in the east half illuminated, and
when the moon reaches city H it is then at the top of the firmament, and
when the sun rises in the east of that city the inhabitants of the city
cannot see the moon or the stars. When the sun arrives over city G, it is at
the top of its orbit, and then it is mid-day and the moon is there in the
western half of the world over city H, and the stars do not show their light
to the inhabitants of city G.


![to face p. 108](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face108.gif)


Constat quod quatuor
sphaerae Lunae, etcetera.
----------------------------------------------


The learned relate that the moon has four spheres. The first of them is
called the 'great sphere', and with its own excessive speed it carries the
moon with it, making one revolution in a day and night around the world, and
causes it to rise in the east and sink in the west in that course.


If this great sphere did not move the moon one course from the east of
the world to the west in a day and a night, as I mentioned, the moon would
be visible every day and every night without concealment from the time it
would be at its prime in the west moving gradually eastward, until at last
it would be in the middle of the month eastward, in the east of the world.
At the setting then, it would be concealed by day and by night, until it
would rise again in the west at its prime at the beginning of the next
month. Thus the revolution of the great sphere I have mentioned, carries 


---

p.111




the moon with it during the day and night, from the east of the world to the
west, but the direct motion of the moon itself is from the west of the world
to the east. It is clear that this is so, for when the moon is at its prime
in the west, we see it every night moving gradually eastwards, until it
arrives at the east of the world, and this is the motion that is most
natural and appropriate to it, for this is the motion of the sphere in which
it itself is fixed, while that other motion which moves it from the east to
the west of the world in a day and a night is only a forced unnatural
one.


The second sphere of the moon is called ‘the sphere like the sphere of
the signs’. When it is in this sphere it is visible going into the signs and
out of them for when it advances towards the southern signs it swerves from
them, yet it never leaves the course of the sphere of the signs.


The third sphere of the moon is called ‘the eccentric sphere’, and
portion of this is near the earth, and the other portion is very far distant
from it, and on that account the moon in that sphere is at one time near the
earth, and at another far from it; and the motion of that sphere is from the
west to the east of the world.


In the body of that sphere is another small sphere, called ‘the sphere
which revolves downwards to the moon’, and the sphere of the moon is firm
and immovable in that sphere like a nail in a board. This little sphere,
which is within that sphere in which the moon is fixed, moves eastwards, and
when the moon reaches the top of the aforementioned sphere, it accelerates
its course; and when it is at the bottom of it, it relaxes the same course
and when it relaxes, it performs something of a backward revolution
westwards as the other planets do, although that revolution is not 


---

p.113




evident, as is the revolution of the planets. On account of the great
swiftness of the eccentric sphere in turning the moon with it, that turning
prevents the backward revolution of the moon being visible. Now I will make
a figure showing those four spheres.


![to face p. 112](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face112.gif)


Concerning the spheres of the sun.
----------------------------------


### Dico quod soli binae sphaerae, etcetera.


I declare that the sun has two spheres. The first in accordance with the
very great sphere, which moves westwards, and advances from the east to the
west of the world. If the motion of that sphere did not check the sun, it
would be six full months journeying from the west to the east of the world
above the earth without setting. It would be an equal length of time moving
from the east to the west of the world invisible, and thus half of the year
would be one day and the other half night.


The second sphere of the sun, called ‘the eccentric sphere’, is like that
of the moon. The motion of this sphere is from the west to the east of the
world, and this sphere containing the sun within it is near the earth on one
side, and distant from it on the other side. When the sun is near the earth
in that sphere it parches the southern portion of the earth greatly, so that
that land is uninhabitable; and when it is furthest from the earth in the
same sphere, its heat does not reach the earth, and a corresponding portion
of the northern part of the earth is uninhabitable from excessive cold.


Now I will make a figure to show how those two orbits of the sun are
within each other.




---

p.115


Concerning the order of the
ten spheres.
----------------------------------------


### Sicut dicit **Ptolemaeus**.


As that philosopher says, we see two kinds of motion in the
firmament—one motion from east to west and the other from west to east
of the world. *The motion of* the sun, moon, and each of
the other five planets corresponds to the extent of the amplitude of their
own spheres in the eastward motion. The westward motion moreover carries the
planets with it westwards in a contrary direction, in opposition to their
natural motion which is eastward.


I repeat that the sun, moon, and other
five planets and all the fixed stars have the same equal motion, for of them
all individually there is no star which moves more swiftly or more slowly
than the other. Therefore, there is no difference in the world between the
motion of the sun and moon, and the motion of the other stars, because it is
certain that they have the same nature and form. Although Saturn appears to
be slower than the moon in cosequence of the reason I shall now relate,
their motion is equal.


As **Ptolemy** and the other philosophers declare, there are ten large
spheres, and the largest sphere of those, which is called the very great
sphere, possesses the same motion as the sphere of the signs, since both
move westward.


The motion of the eight spheres moreover, i.e., the sphere of
the fixed stars and *that* of the sun and of the moon and
of the other five planets, is from the west to the east of, the world, as I
have frequently remarked, and those spheres are situated within each other;
and the sphere of the moon is the nearest to the earth, and then the spheres
of Mercury and Venus respectively, and that of the sun outside those, and
the spheres of Mars and Jupiter outside those, and the sphere of the fixed
stars outside those. It is not because they do not move that they are called
fixed stars, for 


---

p.117




they move from the west of the world to the east, as do the other planets,
but because they do not incline from the north of the firmament to the
south, as do those others. The sphere of the signs is the ninth sphere, and
outside those one and all is the tenth sphere called the ‘very great
sphere’, or by another name, ‘the straight (?) sphere’, (orbis rectus). Here without is a figure which represents
them all.


I said above that the moon appears swifter than Saturn. If the moon were
in the orbit of Saturn, it would be thirty years travelling as Saturn
travels. Similarly Saturn would traverse the orbit of the moon, if he were
in it, in twenty-eight days, and seven weeks less one day[23](javascript:footNote('G600030/note023.html')), as it does
itself. Thus it is the narrowness of the orbit they have, or the wideness of
the other orbit (sic)[24](javascript:footNote('G600030/note024.html')), which causes the planets that are in them to appear
swift or slow and not that they are really so, for they have exactly the
same course and nature, swiftness and slowness. If the sphere of Saturn
were divided into three hundred and sixty equal parts to the centre of the
earth and if each of those parts were given a circular form, each part would
be equal to the sphere of the moon. If the sphere of the moon was opened out
so that three hundred and fifty-nine times[25](javascript:footNote('G600030/note025.html')) as much were added to it, and the
whole made into the shape of a sphere, none the less would it be equal to
the sphere of Saturn. Thus it is proved that it is the narrowness and the
wideness of the orbits of the planets that makes some of them appear to have
a swift and some a slow movement, although as I have repeatedly stated, such
is not the case.


**Ptolemy** gave a clear example to explain the two motions I mentioned above, from east to west and from west to east of the world. Imagine that a
wheel revolved from the east of the world to the 


---

p.119




west in a day and a night, and that there was a small circle around the
centre of that wheel, and a circle twice as large outside it, and a third
circle outside that three times as large as the first circle, the fourth
circle outside of that four times larger than the first circle, and so on up
to the eighth circle, each separate circle being a sphere, moving from the
west of the world to the east. This wheel is like the very great sphere of
the world and the small circles I mentioned are like the inner circles of
that great sphere. Then, when the large first circle completes its first
revolution the second circle is on the second part of its round, and the
third circle on the third part, and the fourth circle on the fourth and the
fifth on the fifth, and the sixth on the sixth, and the seventh on the
seventh, and the eighth on the eighth. Thus when the eighth circle would
have traversed its whole course the first circle would have made eight
revolutions. Whilst those eight circles would be fulfilling their circular
course, the wheel would revolve very frequently between those revolutions
from the east to the west of the world and the eight circles would begin
their own motion; and to enlighten the mind of the reader I have set down
this diagram.


Sciendum est quia maxima
sphaera, etcetera.
-------------------------------------------


Be it known unto you that the very great sphere is the straight sphere.
Ill-informed persons have given many erroneous opinions concerning it, for
they declared that, since it is the highest and loftiest and swiftest of the
spheres, it is the origin of the universe. It completes its course in a day
and a night, and contains in itself three hundred and sixty degrees of the
Zodiac, and the sphere of the fixed stars moves in a contrary direction to
this from the west of the world to the east, and it is a thousand years
(sic)[26](javascript:footNote('G600030/note026.html')) moving over one degree. Each of the spheres of the planets completes
its course according to its narrowness or wideness. 


---

p.121




Moreover the very great sphere, which surrounds all the other spheres on
every side, controls them and causes them to revolve from the east of the
world to the west; and this is the cause of night and day, light and
darkness, and of the changes of the seasons, of spring and summer, autumn
and winter.


Inside of this sphere everything is protected and controlled and set in
motion, lest at any time they might change their state or position or order,
and this is what causes the planets to revolve so easily while the earth is
immovable. For, if the earth were movable, day or night could not preserve
their own course, as they do now, and the course of the planets and spheres
of the firmament could not be determined, as they now are. There are no
stars in that sphere. The ill-informed have said that it has life and that
everything receives life from it; but I declare however great its powers
over everything I have mentioned, that it receives these powers from its own
creator. As a proof that it is so—it is not known what work anybody
performs until it has taken effect. Then, since we know every action that is
effected by the very great sphere before it has been performed, those
actions are performed by some other being, and are not of itself.


Secunda sphaera post
maximam sphaeram etcetera
----------------------------------------------


The Zodiac, i.e., the sphere of the signs, is the second sphere after the
very great sphere, and is nearer the earth than the latter, and *the Zodiac* is also without stars, as I mentioned that the
very great sphere was, and it moves from the east to the west of the world
like the latter. The ancients imagined that there are nine spheres in 


---

p.123




all and that it *the Zodiac* is one of the orbits of the
very great sphere. **Ptolemy** refutes this theory in his own book, and says
that he found a great difference between the very great sphere and the
Zodiac as regards its zones and poles, for he found the north pole in the
Zodiac twenty-four degrees higher than the same pole in the very great
sphere, and he found the south pole of the Zodiac another twenty-four
degrees under the same pole in the very great sphere, and the zones of this
sphere are twenty-four degrees from each other in the top of the firmament.
Therefore **Ptolemy** establishes ten spheres, and we refer to the ninth sphere
when we say that the sun, or moon, or other planet is in some degree of the
signs of that sphere.


The reason that these names—Aries, Taurus, Leo, etc., are applied
to the signs of the Zodiac is because the constellations in the sphere of
the stars opposite that portion of the Zodiac which is called Aries or
Taurus correspond in shape and nature to the same animals we have here *below*; but there is no figure at all in the Zodiac, because,
as I have stated, there is no star in it.


The philosophers divided the Zodiac into twelve parts, and called each
part a sign, according to the name or shape of the thing which is beneath
that sign in the straight line in the sphere of the stars. Similarly, they
divided the year into twelve parts according to those twelve signs of the
sun, and called the course of the sun in each of the signs a ‘month’; and
the philosophers taught that the change of season occurs according to the 
course of the sun
from sign to sign, and according to elevation or depression, for when the
sun enters the first point of Aries an equinox occurs, i.e., equality of day
and night, and then spring begins and does not depart until the sun is in
Gemini; and when the sun enters Cancer, that is the beginning of summer.
When it is there at the highest point of its sphere above, the sun heats the
surface of the earth to a great extent, and when it arrives at the last
point of Virgo, it brings the summer 


---

p.125




to an end. When it arrives at the last point of Libra, the second equinox
occurs, and then autumn begins and does not depart until the sun is at the
last point of *Sagittarius*. When it is in the last point of Capricorn, winter
begins and continues until it is in the last point of Aries again, and then
the spring begins again.


The reason that one winter is colder than another, and a winter wetter
than another, and a winter drier than another, and one summer hotter, and
another drier than another, is because the sun is the cause of spring,
summer, autumn, and winter, and the other planets cause the same seasons
(sic). [27](javascript:footNote('G600030/note027.html')) When the summer of the sun occurs, and the other planets are in the
sign of their own winter, there is a great deal of rain and cold in the
summer; and when the winter of the sun occurs, and the other planets are in
the signs which show their own summer, there is wind and little rain and
cold in that winter especially. And similarly as regards the other seasons.
The heat and cold, dryness and wetness of the four seasons of the year
depend upon the movements of the planets in the signs of the Zodiac, as the
Blessed Creator himself has ordained them.


Dico quod Saturnus per
quattuor, etcetera.
------------------------------------------


I declare, since Saturn has four motions, that he has four spheres in
which he moves. The first motion *that of* the very great
sphere from the east of the world to the west; the second motion, his own
natural motion from the west of the world to the east, the third motion, the
motion of the sphere in which he himself is fixed, and in which he moves in
a direct line, or backwards, swiftly or slowly; the fourth motion, the
motion of the eccentric sphere, and it is in that motion (lit. on that
sphere) every planet is raised as high as possible from the earth, and is
lowered as near as possible to 


---

p.127




the earth; and these are the four motions that all the planets have, except
the sun, which has two spheres and two motions.


I will again describe those four spheres together with their motions
themselves; and first I will make a figure of the very great sphere, and the
figure of the earth in the middle of it, and I will place A in the east of
it and B at the top of it and C in the west of it and D at the bottom of it,
and thus is the motion of the very great sphere from A to B, from B to C,
from C to D, and from D to A.


I will make a figure of the second sphere, which moves from the west of
the world to the east, and which is under the very great sphere, and in the
straight line beneath the Zodiac; and the Zodiac is oblique, and the very
great sphere above it is straight, because, as I mentioned, its poles and
its pivot (?) are far apart.


![to face p. 126 (1)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face126_1.gif)


I will make a figure of the third sphere, the eccentric sphere, inside
the two preceding spheres. The centre of this sphere is south of the centre
of the earth (sic)[28](javascript:footNote('G600030/note028.html')) by two and a half degrees, according to the measurement of the diameter of the sphere, and is divided into one hundred and twenty parts;[29](javascript:footNote('G600030/note029.html')) and this sphere is near the earth on one side, and distant from it on another.


I will make a figure of the fourth sphere which confines firmly the body
of the planet within itself, inside of the other three spheres. The centre
of that star forms the centre of that sphere in which it is, and it moves
from the west to the east of the world; and at the top of the eccentric
sphere is the centre of those planets like a firm immovable nail in a
sphere. It is not a straight course like that of an arrow that the planets
have, but a circular natural course like that of a cartwheel, moving from
the west of the world to the east, and if there was a nail in the upper rim
of the cart*wheel* moving from the west of the world to
the east, whilst the nail would move downwards towards the 


---

p.129




earth, it would not move westwards or eastwards, and when it would reach the
earth, it would incline its course from east to west; and when it would rise
up from the earth it would not move westwards or eastwards, but when it
would reach the extreme top, then it would move eastwards; and this is what
causes the planets to perform a direct course at one time and a backward
course at another, and a swift course at one time and a slow one at
another.


![to face p. 126 (2)](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face126_2.gif)


Postquam Saturni sphaera
motus, etcetera.
-----------------------------------------


Having spoken of the sphere and motion of Saturn and the other planets, I
shall now tell how they turn backwards, which is called retrogressio, i.e., a back turning, i.e., when the planet
turns back from Aries to Piscis.


To explain that, I will make a figure of the two spheres of Saturn, and
outside of them I will place the sphere of the signs and divide it into
twelve parts, and then inside of it I will place the eccentric sphere of
Saturn, and above at the top of it I will place the sphere in which the body
of the planet is fixed, and then I will place the earth in its own position
with E in the middle of it and Saturn in four small circles around its own
circumference. I will place the first of those small circles at the top of
its own circle and a line through it between Aries and Piscis; the second
circle in the first stopping place, with B in the middle of it ; the third
circle in the place where it turns back, with C in the middle of it; the
fourth circle in the second stopping place with D in the middle of it, and I
will draw three lines from the centre of the earth up through Saturn to the
figure of the signs which are in the sphere of the fixed stars. Those lines
represent the sight of the eyes up from the earth towards Saturn, and I will
draw the vertical line up 


---

p.131




from the earth towards A, and thus when Saturn is in position A, it is in
the beginning of Aries in the Zodiac, and its motion is eastwards full and
direct, and when it has moved thus eastwards some degrees in Aries it
inclines towards B, and when it arrives there it moves neither to the east
nor west, and, therefore, that is its first halt, and when it departs from
that position it moves back to D, and that is the place of its
retrogression, and there it has a full direct motion from the east of the
world to the west; and as it moves westwards, when it reaches position C,
that is its second halting place, because there it moves neither to the east
or the west. Whosoever would then look up from the middle of the earth he
would find then in Piscis the same Saturn which was previously in Aries, and
on its leaving D in the east it will mount by degrees again to A. That is
the reason why the planets appear larger at one time than at another,
because, as they make a retrogressive motion towards the earth, they appear
at their largest.


All that I have said concerning spheres and motions and every other
quality which Saturn possesses, ought to be understood with regard to
Jupiter and Mars, since there is no difference between them in their course,
or in their motion, or in their actions. The three planets that are above
the sun experience the same things, although they are not evident from the
moon on account of the excessive speed of its eccentric sphere, because the
sphere which holds the moon firmly moves eastwards, and when it turns on its
backward course it moves westwards, and, therefore, that revolution is not
evident although its other course and its halting are evident, because one
day it moves twelve degrees and another it moves fourteen
degrees.




---

p.133


Concerning the sphere of the
fixed stars.
-----------------------------------------


### Haec sphaera octavo situatur in loco, etcetera.


This sphere is situated at the eighth place in the firmament, and is
formed after the pattern of Aries and Taurus and Gemini and the other signs
of the Zodiac. The stars of that sphere move exactly, equally and
equidistantly from each other at every season for ever and ever from the
west of the world to the east, for they are not accelerated or retarded nor
have they a direct course, nor a retrogressive motion like the wandering
stars, and they spend a hundred years traversing one of the degrees of the
great sphere.


Ad haec indicanda
geometrica sunt.
----------------------------------


To pursue this study, it is necessary to obtain geometrical arguments, in
which we can believe without doubting. I will make then a figure of the
earth, and I will place E in the centre of it, and I will describe another
circle from the north of it to the south, and draw a straight line from the
Arctic Pole to the Antarctic Pole through the earth and through the orbit of
the earth, and place A at the top of the firmament, and B in the north pole
of the circle, and C down below, and D in the south pole.


Therefore, whosoever being in position E, should take the astrolabe in
his hand (for with it will be obtained full certain knowledge of this
matter), and placing his face along the middle line of the astrolabe which
he holds suspended by a thread from his thumb, and beholding the Arctic Pole
through the two holes of its two surfaces, would find that pole level with
the earth; and if you travel three score six and two-thirds of a mile from E to B and
then place the astrolabe opposite the Arctic Pole, and look through it as you
did before, you would find it to be six degrees in height over the earth 


---

p.135




and one of the three hundred and sixty degrees of the astrolabe proves it to
be thus.


Again, if you move another three score six and two-third miles from that
towards B, and place the astrolabe opposite the same pole, and look as
before, you will find two degrees in height overhead, and so on, always,
from E to B, for every three score six and two-third miles until one would
reach B, one would find the same pole increasing in height by one degree.
The amount of all those miles put together in accordance with the amount of
the three hundred and sixty degrees which are in the circumference of the
sphere of the earth, make 24,000 miles, which is the circumference
measurement, including the orbit of the water and of the land. And the **alkoterra**, i.e., the diameter of the earth, is eight
thousand miles, and, accordingly, it is four thousand miles to the centre of
the earth, and for every mile of those *to the centre*
there ought to be three and one seventh miles *of circumference*.


![to face p. 134](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face134.gif)


Antiqui linea ab oriente ad
occidentem, etcetera.
-------------------------------------------------


The ancients imagined a line through the middle of the earth directly
from the east of it to the west co-incidental with the equinoctial line, and
they handed it down to us that that line is equidistant from the Arctic and
the Antarctic Poles.


Between that line and the Arctic Pole is the habitable part of the earth,
although that entire portion is not habitable. No living thing on earth can
exist from the same line to the Antarctic Pole, on account of the excessive
heat. Because, since it is in the eccentric sphere that the body of the sun
is borne around the earth, 


---

p.137




and since that sphere inclines towards that side, that side of the earth
must necessarily be much hotter than any other, and the heat which is on
that side scarcely exceeds the cold which is on the other side opposite it.
Consequently, at the extreme northern portion of the earth, on account of
the great distance of the sun from it, there is nothing but many dark
clouds and much wind and rain, frost, snow and excessive cold. On that account that
place is uninhabitable, and the part which is along the equinoctial line
temperate.


The days and nights of the year are exactly of equal length in that
place. The portion of the earth which is habitable extends from that line
along the equinoctial as far as the uninhabitable district in the north. The
ancients divided that portion into seven parts in all, from the east of the
earth to the west, as this figure demonstrates.


![to face p. 136](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face136.gif)


#### Concerning the nature of those lands.


From the line along the equinoctial begins the first zone as regards
latitude, and extends in longitude, as I mentioned, from the east of the
world to the west. And the whole day does not exceed twelve hours and
two-thirds exactly twice a year, and is not shorter than eleven hours and
one-third. Twice in the year the sun passes over the inhabitants of that
region, i.e., when it moves from the south of the firmament to the north,
and from thence to the south again; consequently, there are two summers in
one year in that region. In that region, from north to south of it, the
shadow never inclines.


#### The nature of the second zone:


The excessive amount of the sand of that region makes it too warm,
because the heat of the sun penetrates the sand, and scorches and burns the
surface of the earth; and when a high wind comes it collects the sand and 


---

p.139




forms hills and mountains from it and at another time scatters it. The
inhabitants of that region are black people called "negroes," with curly
hair. There is a great abundance of gold in that region, because the very
great heat of the sun parches the surface of the earth. Not in the veins and
hollows of the earth is the gold found, as are silver, tin and other metals,
but on its surface. Day never exceeds thirteen hours, or is less than twelve
hours in that region (sic).


#### The nature of the third zone:


The heat of these regions is less than that of the previous one because
the sun is never in a straight line above it except for a short time in the
summer solstice, and that climate is more temperate than either of those I
have mentioned. The inhabitants of that region are of a swarthy colour, with
curly hair and slender bodies, and the trees of their country do not grow to
any height, and day does not exceed fourteen hours, and neither is it ever
less than ten hours in that region.


#### The nature of the fourth zone:


The climate of this region is more temperate than that of the other
regions I have mentioned, because they have no excessive cold or heat, and
they abound and are rich (?) in strange trees and many fruits of the earth,
and the inhabitants of the first and second regions can dwell in it easily
and without danger. The inhabitants of that region are of a yellow colour,
between white and swarthy, they are intellectual and refined, with good
memories and much wisdom; and in this country the greatest number of people
of great knowledge and wisdom, generosity and physical strength have been.
Also the water of that country tastes better than that of the others. Day
never *exceeds* fifteen hours, nor
 is less than nine hours, in that region.




---

p.141


#### The nature of the fifth zone:


Its heat is less, and its cold greater than that of the preceding region,
and yet their trees are more numerous, and the fruit of their fields more
excellent. The inhabitants of that country have medium-sized bodies, their
complexion is neutral, nearer to white than to swarthy, their intelligence
is inferior and their life shorter, and they are richer (?) than the people
of the preceding climate. And day extends to sixteen hours, and diminishes
to eight hours in that region.


#### The nature of the sixth zone:


Its heat is less and its cold greater than that of the preceding regions,
and the produce of its trees and fields is less than that of the preceding
regions, on account of its coldness, and great is the snow and rain, and
(many are) the clouds, wells, rivers, hills and mountains of that region.
The inhabitants of that region have weak bodies, are of fair complexion,
with smooth hair, while they are savage and uncouth. The longest day of that
region is of seventeen hours duration, and the shortest day eight and a half
(sic).


#### The nature of the seventh zone:


is, lack of heat and excess of cold. The inhabitants of that region are crafty (?) and uncouth, with weak minds and brutish memories, and weak bodies, and smooth, fair, yellow hair; and if the inhabitants of this region went to the first or second region, or
if the inhabitants of those regions came to this one, both of them would die
on account of the change of climate.


Therefore, the fourth region is the most temperate, and is the best of
them, all things considered, for the mildness of the heavens nurtures that
region beyond all. The longest day in that region *i.e., the
seventh* is eighteen hours, and the shortest six.




---

p.143


Concerning the places where
the whole year is one day and one night.
--------------------------------------------------------------------


### Duo in terra loca esse novimus, etcetera.


We know two places on the earth, one in the straight line under the
Arctic Pole, the other in the straight line under the Antarctic Pole, where
the whole year is one day and one night, since six months are one day, and
the other six months one night. Whosoever would be at the extreme north of
the earth in the place where the Arctic Pole would be, i.e., the pivot (?)
of the north of the firmament in the straight line above him, would see the
circle of the straight line which coincides with the circle of the signs
around him, and thus would see the motion of the firmament like the motion
of a quern; and thus when the sun enters the straight line in the first
part of Aries, it rises in the east under the earth with reference to that
place I mentioned, and causes day there, revolving around it like a quern,
and turns from east to south and from south to west, and from west to north,
and from north again to the east, and *the sun*
continues thus constantly revolving in the same degree until it arrives at
Cancer. Then being in the highest degree it can possibly reach, over that
place, it divides that long day into two equal parts, and from that
gradually sinks until it comes to the end of the day, when it deprives the
aforesaid place of its light. And thus there is day in that place, from the
middle of the month of March until the middle of the month of September.


When the sun enters the first point of Libra, night begins to darken the
same place, and the sun is then moving in a circuit, like a quern, sinking
gradually underneath the earth, until he 


---

p.145




enters the first point of Capricorn; beyond that he cannot sink, and then
occurs the middle of that great night. At that time the sun begins to rise
gradually from that place, until it enters the first point of Aries, and day
begins again in the place I mentioned. Consequently there is one long night
in that place from the middle of September until the middle of March.


Similarly, whosoever would be in the south of the earth in the place
where the Antarctic Pole would be, i.e., the pivot (?) of the firmament
directly overhead, would see the circle of the straight line turning like a
quern overhead; and when the sun would enter the straight line in the first
point of Libra, it would rise in the east under the earth with reference to
a person who would be in the place that I mentioned, and day would begin
with reference to him, and the sun would revolve like a quern from east to
north, and from north to west, and from west to south, and from the south to
the east of the firmament.


Thus, it continues ever revolving without sinking, with reference to the
place I mentioned, until it enters the first point of Capricorn; and when it
has arrived at that highest point it can reach, it divides that long day
into two parts and continues gradually sinking until it enters the last
point of Pisces; it brings the day to a close then, the day which lasts from
the middle of September until the middle of March. Then, when the sun enters
the first point of Aries, night begins to darken the aforementioned place
and then the sun keeps revolving and sinking gradually under the earth,
until it enters the first point of Cancer, so that it cannot be lower with
reference to that place, and then occurs the middle of that great night. The
sun continues rising by degrees until it enters the first point of Libra,
and the same long day begins again; and the night I described lasts from the
middle of March until the middle of September.




---

p.147


Concerning the winds; what they are, and whence they come.
----------------------------------------------------------


### Asserunt antiqui philosophi, etcetera.


Although [30](javascript:footNote('G600030/note030.html')) the old philosophers say that Eurus is warm and dry, and Zephyrus warm and wet, and that Boreas is cold and dry, and Auster cold and wet, some of the doctors declare that neither Zephyrus or Auster are so,
but that Zephyrus is cold and wet, and Auster warm and wet; nor do I know
whether they said so with reference to the general nature of the winds, or
with reference to the nature of the winds in certain countries, since we
perceive a difference in the winds in various countries, because Eurus and
Zephyrus are wet in some countries, and dry in others; however, I shall
relate the general certain nature of all the winds.


When the air has been heated by the sun it expands and becoming extended,
dilates, and a black dark vapour rises from the sea up into the air and is
converted into a cloud above, and, when that mist comes in contact with the
cold air above it suddenly contracts, which causes it to flow and dissolve,
and converts it into rain. Moreover, when that sea vapour and the air come
in contact with each other above in the warm dry atmosphere, and both
together are drawn up to the frost region or to the domain of cold, they
there become contracted and remain in the atmosphere. It is the nature of
the warm air and that of the cold region *to be* opposed
to each other, and they do not endure to remain in the same place, and,
consequently, the *cold* space drives out the air, and
being continually expelled it runs from place to place setting the
atmosphere in motion. That motion of the air is the wind, and the greater
the cause whence the motion arises, the greater the wind. Another cause of
wind: When a battle or conflict is being fought by large hosts and vast
troops, 


---

p.149




with the movements and panting of the men, some of them fleeing and others
in pursuit, the rarefied air flies before them, and raises wind.


If you wish to prove clearly this aforementioned matter concerning the
rising of the wind into the cold air after it has been heated, take a basin
and put water into it to a depth of two or three inches, and place an empty
glass vessel in it, and leave them there during the night until morning in
some cool place; and in the morning you will find that vessel full of cold
condensed air. Turn it mouth downwards in the water which is in the basin,
and place them both in some place exposed to the heat of the sun, when it
has risen; and when the condensed air in the glass becomes heated, it
expands and dilates, and spreads and seeks a larger space, and since it has
no way of escape except through the mouth of the vessel down into the water,
it goes down into the water, and lifts it up to the mouth of the basin. It
appears then like the full tide, gradually growing until, sometimes, it
overflows the basin. It is that which proves that the air which was in the
aforesaid vessel expands and dilates. Leave it so again until the following
night, and as the heat of the day departs, and the cold of the night comes,
that cold will collect the air that was in the same vessel into its own
vessel again, and will condense it there and the water will fall into its
own place again. Thus, since that small quantity of air becomes so much
dilated, it is certain that the whole atmosphere becomes greatly dilated or
portion of it in its own sphere (?)[31](javascript:footNote('G600030/note031.html')).




---

p.151


Concerning the clouds, thunder, rain and lightning.
---------------------------------------------------


### Sol *currit super* maria et flumina et loca, etcetera.


The sun draws from the sea and from rivers and other wet places, vapours
and mists which, owing to their thinness, are invisible except in the
morning and evening, and when they are drawn up into the hot air, they are
scattered and spread and mingled with the air, since they are of the same
nature. On the other hand, when they are drawn up into the cold air, they
become compressed and contracted within themselves and they are converted
into clouds, and since it is the nature of like things to approach each
other, as the rivers enter the sea, so do the lesser of these clouds
approach the larger clouds since they are lighter and can move more readily.
And they become one large dark mass, and since that mass is warm by nature,
and the cold air surrounds it, they are opposed, and contend with each
other.


When the air is the stronger, and overcomes the cloud, it binds and
condenses the edges without, and converts it into snow. Consequently, when
the heat is inside in the cloud, and it is surrounded by the cold without,
with the cloud freezing and hardening around it, it would seek, according to
its nature, a place where it could extend and dilate and spread; and since
the dense cloud does not suffer it to do so, the heat shakes it powerfully,
and it *the cloud* breaks, and a great and terrible sound, called thunder,
results from that breaking, and with the strength of the force by which that
rupture is caused, thunder-bolts and lightning result from that rupture, and
small fragments of that cloud fall, striking and breaking against each
other. As they descend, they break each other again into small pieces, and
when they come in contact 


---

p.153




with the part of the atmosphere nearest the earth the heat of that place
deprives them of their knobby points, and renders them spherical, and the
hailstones fall, and the small drops of rain that mingle with the snow come
from the part which it loses as it melts.


The greater the aforementioned heat and cold, the greater the opposition between them, and as the opposition is increased, the thunder and lightning which results from them
is increased. The part of the cloud which does not fall to the earth spreads
throughout the atmosphere, and is converted into lightning. The part of the
lightning which comes to earth splits hills and mountains, and penetrating
the earth, kills men and cattle.


As a proof that thunder results from the contrariety I mentioned, the
philosophers have cited an example: when a green leaf is put upon fire,
before it burns, when the heat comes in contact with it, it breaks with a
sound. In the same way when red *hot* iron is put into
water, the contrariety of these two things draws a tremendous noise from
them. Then since the contrariety of small bodies produces this noise, large
bodies ought to produce a great noise.


There are more thunder, lightning and thunderbolts in spring and autumn,
than in the other seasons, because these two seasons occur between the warm
summer and the cold winter. The clouds which the blowing of the wind draws
up from the earth into the cold, wet, thin attenuated air, without heat or
dryness, except what is contained in the clouds themselves, possess no
contrariety.


The heavy part which is contained in those clouds separates from them in
drops, and is converted into rain, and when the cloud meets the warm air, it
*the air* rarefies it and converts it back into air, and through the
disagreement due to the contrariety of the heat and cold, dryness and
wetness of that air, it is changed into large black clouds, and those black
clouds are changed into heavy rain; and sometimes the same substance is
converted into large drops of rain and great hailstones, which occur most
frequently in spring and autumn, and when they occur in the summer, 


---

p.155




on account of that season possessing so much of the contrariety I mentioned,
compared to the other seasons, the tempest is greater then. When a great
wind accompanies that tempest, it gathers the clouds together up in the sky,
and binds them, and makes them assume different shapes, and ill-informed
people think that they are dragons. We perceive the dust of the earth being
whirled around by the wind in the same way.


Although the thunder and lightning are produced simultaneously, the
lightning is seen before the thunder is heard. The reason of that is that
the eye sees what is near it and what is distant from it in the same way,
for it does not perceive the earth any sooner than it does the stars that
are most distant from it in the firmament. That is not the case with the
hearing, for one hears the sound that is near sooner than the sound which is
distant; and in explaining that, the doctors compared the sense of hearing
to a quern, for if there were an ear in the opening of the quern, it would
hear everything near to it and distant from it indiscriminately, because the
sense of the ear is like air, which is a thin, rarefied movable body, the
motion of which is greater, smoother, and swifter than that of water.


When some disruption, or striking, or other noise occurs in the air, the
air which is nearest that noise propels the sound away from it, towards the
other parts of the air, until finally it enters the ear, and passes from the
ear to the brain, which distinguishes between the greatest and the least,
and between the gentlest and the loudest noise.


In the same way, they compared the sense of sight to a trumpet which has
a narrow end, and the further from the end it is the broader it becomes, and
thus the sight of the eye passes through the sinewy vein from the brain 


---

p.157




to the pupils of the eyes, and there has a narrow end like a trumpet, and it
widens out until it meets the object which it beholds, and turns in again,
carrying the shape form, and colour of that object with it to the
brain.


Concerning animate, growing
objects, destitute of sensation.
------------------------------------------------------------


### Universa animata insensibilia, etcetera.


Every thing which has life, and which is destitute of sensation, can grow
of itself, for we perceive many kinds of trees on which fruit grows of
itself in the woods and hills, although the fruit of trees which human hands
plant is more carefully and better cultivated than they.
No tree in the world can grow except in its own natural place and climate.
It is the seed of objects which have vegetable life, and are without
sensation, which gives them material creation (?) because God, who made
them, desired that they should contain the power of propagation whence would
grow for ever in succession their own like corresponding kind; and thus when
that seed falls above the earth, it becomes swollen from the wet rain
falling upon it.


It is the nature of water to penetrate every body, except an impenetrable
one, and the sun having heated that seed, draws its moisture out of it,
because it is the nature of the Sun to draw up every moisture, and then
there grows from that grain, after its being heated and moistened, the
natural growth which was contained in its hidden powers within it, i.e., the
germ of a plant like unto the plant from which it originally sprang; and the
earth is ever supplying it with moisture in place of the moisture which the
sun draws from it, and then a force is generated from those two things
called ‘vegetable life’, and veins grow down out of it, *the
plant* called roots, through which it draws to itself the nutriment of
the soil. When the sun draws *up* the aforesaid moisture,
it draws with it the hidden force, and from it are created boughs, foliage,
blossoms 


---

p.159




and fruit, and it continues ever thus growing, until it ceases to grow, and
the fruit which is upon it is its seed, and is the germ of a similar plant
again.


There are three kinds of growing things *i.e., plants*: some of them lose their foliage in winter and it comes on them again in
summer. The second kind, which does not lose its foliage, either in winter
or summer. The third kind dies, except for one thing, in winter, and from
that seed a similar one grows in summer. The great master of philosophers,
i.e., Aristotle, says that objects with growth and devoid of sensation are of three kinds:—[*...*][32](javascript:footNote('G600030/note032.html'))




---

p.134


[33](javascript:footNote('G600030/note033.html'))
GLORIA DEO PRINCIPIO
--------------------

Glory to God; whose beginning is without beginning, and whose end is without end, to the Person who existed always before everything, who will be eternal after everything, and to Him whom sense or human reason does not attain, to know or recognise what He is.And since he did not wish to remain for ever without manifesting Himself to men, He instructed the learned in His works and arts, so that the worker would be known from the works and the creator from the deeds, and therefore, it is fitting for the learned ones to whom He revealed His secrets to glorify Him above everything.Therefore, let us here begin to examine the difficult, obscure questions of the ancients concerning the works, and in particular *we discuss*, with the help of the Creator of whom I speak, the characteristics of the firmament and of the four elements, and of their situation and their creation, with very just, forcible arguments and indisputable, irrefutable reasons and conclusions.There are in this book, inclusive, forty chapters, and this is the first chapter of them:—
1. The creation and manifestation of the firmament. (1)[34](javascript:footNote('G600030/note034.html'))
2. The four elements and their positions as the Creator ordained them.(2)
3. Their motions and natures. (3)
4. Their natures and motions. [35](javascript:footNote('G600030/note035.html'))
5. The roundness of the four elements. (5)
6. The disagreement of the four elements and the nature of them. (6)
7. The rotundity of the earth and the knowledge of day and night. (7)
8. The change of the sea and the rivers. (8)
9. The characteristics of the earth and the hills. (8)
10. The characteristics of the waters and the motion of the earth. (9)
11. The two burning volcanoes. (10)
12. The flow and ebb of the tide. (11)
13. The flood of the river Nile in Egypt. (12)
14. The roundness of the firmament; its motion and its natures. (13)
15. The revolution of the firmament and of the sun. (14)
16. The change of the firmament. (15)
17. The circles lines and points of the firmament.(16)
18. The difference in sunrise and sunset. (17)
19. The knowledge of the size of the sun. (18)
20. The light of the moon, which borrows from the sun. (21)
21. The eclipse of the moon. (22)


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24. The light of the constellations. (23)
25. The eclipse of the sun. (24)
26. The reason why the moon appears small, and large at its prime. (25)
27. The characteristics of the light of the moon. (26)
28. The number of circles of the moon.(27)
29. The two spheres of the sun. (28)
30. All the circles and their motion. (29)
31. The motion of the Great Sphere. (30)
32. The motion of the Sphere of the Signs. (31)
33. The change of nature and the seasons. (31)
34. The number of the circles of Saturn and the other planets. (32)
35. The retrograde movement of Saturn and the other planets. (32)
36. The Sphere of the Stars. (34)
37. The number of miles around the earth. (35)
38. The change of the stars in different countries.[36](javascript:footNote('G600030/note036.html'))
39. The eight habitable regions of the earth. (36)
40. The two places where the whole year is one day and one night. (37)
41. The winds and their nature. (38)
42. Thunder, clouds, rain and lightning. (39)
43. The plants. (40)

[37](javascript:footNote('G600030/note037.html'))FIRMAMENTUM EST, ET CETERA.
---------------------------


The firmament is round according to its creation, and will come to an end, and is ever ruled by its own Creator.


There are stars in the seven spheres of the firmament, like firm nails in a plank, without motion of their own, except the motion of the circle in which they are. On that account they are not seen moving past each other or after each other, but they always preserve one constant, everlasting order at fixed distances to and from each other.


As a proof that that government is preserved by the Creator of the world, and that it will depend upon His works for ever, they observe without deception and without fail the course He ordained for them at the beginning of the world.


As a proof of that, the learned have knowledge of every natural phenomenon before it occurs, for they understand fully the motion of the stars and of the planets for every year and every month and every week and for every day and every moment. And besides they even have knowledge of the seasons before they are entered upon, knowledge of summer and autumn, winter and spring, and knowledge of everything that occurs naturally in them; and that is a sure argument to prove that He who created the world is still governing it, otherwise the things I have mentioned would have altered by this the function
 


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I related them to have; the stars and the planets would be each, at one time swifter, at another, slower than the other, and at another time stationary, not stirring at all.


In the same manner the seasons would come (one) instead of another, and there would be natural days longer than one another. And, accordingly, the fruits of the earth would be growing at one time and at another time would be non-productive. Accordingly, everything in heaven and earth would be confused and confounded, neither philosopher or seer knowing what to say of them. And, again, the result would be that the exact sciences, which were drawn up concerning the motion and stopping and number and position and order of the works of God, would be set at nought.


Then, since we see that the exact sciences exist, and that everything else occurs definitely in its own season, regularly and without confusion according to one order, from this we know that He who created the world still orders and governs it.


The four elements, and their positions as the Creator ordained them.
--------------------------------------------------------------------


### TERRA EST IN MEDIO MUNDI, ET CETERA.[38](javascript:footNote('G600030/note038.html'))


The earth is a round point in the very middle of the universe, fashioned as a perfect sphere with no substance beneath to support it and the water, as is natural, around it on every side, and, moreover, the Creator created the upper part of the earth as a dwelling place for men and for the animals that cannot live under water. And air surrounds both. And fire surrounds the three of them, and the firmament is on all sides around those four.


The following is a description of those four elements— 
Description of fire—A warm, dry, burning, light, liquid, movable body, beneath which is the air.
Description of air—A warm, wet, liquid, movable body, heavy in comparison with fire, and light in comparison with water. Description of water—A cold, wet, liquid, movable body, beneath which is the earth, heavy in comparison with air and light in comparison with the earth.
Description of earth—A cold, dry, heavy immovable body that is beneath the whole of creation, and thus the earth comes before the water and the water before the air and the air before the fire and the fire before the firmament, because the firmament is the outermost of them, as this figure below shows.




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[39](javascript:footNote('G600030/note039.html')). DICUNT PHILOSOPHI, ET CETERA.
-------------------------------


The philosophers declare that there are three motions, i.e., the motion from the centre, the motion towards the centre, and the motion around the centre.


Motion from the centre is the motion that proceeds equally out from the earth to every portion of the surrounding circle. Motion to the centre is the motion that proceeds downwards from the surrounding circle to the earth. Motion around the centre is the motion that revolves with the circle, and from its prime motions is produced every motion that is in the world, and one of these is the motion of the four elements, for some of them move from the centre, and some to the centre, and nothing moves around the centre naturally but the firmament or some portion of it.


Of the two elements that move to the centre, earth and water, the motion to the centre is swifter in earth than in water. Of the two elements that move from the centre, air and fire, fire moves more swiftly from the centre than air. And thus the elements that move to the centre are heavy, and the elements that move from the centre are light. From these facts let us conclude that earth is the heaviest element and fire the lightest. And although the water and the air are temperate between them, compared with each other and with the other elements, heaviness and lightness are found in them, for, although water is heavy compared to air, it is light compared to earth, and thus though air is light compared to water, it is heavy compared to fire.




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In order to demonstrate this subject more clearly I shall make a figure here below that will elucidate the meaning, of these words. First I shall make a figure of the earth and write A in the middle of it and I shall put the letter B at the top of it, and then I shall make the circle of the firmament around the earth and put C on the east side of it, and D on the top of it, and E on the west of it, and F on the lower part of it, and on the model of the figure there are two of the elemental bodies moving from the centre to the surrounding circle from A to B and these are fire and air.


There are also the two other bodies which move from the surrounding circle to the centre, i.e., from B to A, and these are earth and water. The third prime motion that exists, i.e., the motion around the surrounding circle, which is the motion of the firmament, moves thus, from C to D and from D to E and from E to F and from F to C, and that is sufficient for the experienced.


[40](javascript:footNote('G600030/note040.html'))CALOR ET FRIGIDITAS, ET CETERA.
-------------------------------


Heat and cold, wetness and dryness, are the four principal properties of the four elements, and they are accidents inseparable from them, and two of these properties are active, i.e., heat and cold. The reason why they are designated active qualities is that when we touch them, they make known to us then immediately at that very moment their own essence, for when we touch fire, it makes known to us then the essence of its heat. So, when we touch hoar frost it makes known to us then immediately at that same moment the essence of its coldness. The reason why we feel those immoderate things is that we have a moderate nature.


The remaining two properties are passive, and the reason why they are designated passive qualities here is because they do not make known their powers when touched, for when we touch a wet object or a dry object we do not feel its wetness or its dryness suddenly as we feel the heat of the fire or the
 


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cold of the hoarfrost. That is why some of those properties are said to be active and some passive. Every body from the sphere of fire downwards is compounded of these (qualities) and they themselves (the bodies) are simple, even though they are said to be compounded of their own properties as hot, dry fire is a compound of those two properties *i.e.,
of heat and dryness*, since it is those two properties that preponderate in fire. And air is a compound of dryness and dampness, because it is they that preponderate in it and thus is the preponderance of the other two elements with regard to their own properties.


Although these four elements are compounded of the principal properties, they are termed simple in comparison with the elemental bodies that are compounded of themselves. Thus these four are both compound and simple. Simple compared to every object that is compounded of themselves. Compound compared to the prime qualities which are essential. Thus it is fitting for a simple body to have a simple motion, and for a compound body to have a compound motion.


And it is clear, that every body in which heat preponderates, moves from the centre upwards; and every body in which cold preponderates, moves in the direction of the centre. It is the heat that causes lightness in the natural bodies and it is the cold that causes heaviness and it is the dryness that causes rapidity of movement towards their natural place in light bodies. In the same way dampness causes slowness of motion in the bodies in which it is. From these statements we conclude that it is the nature of every one of those elements to remain in its own natural position in which is the end of its own motion, because if one of those elements were displaced by force from its own natural position, the nature of it would draw it again to the same position.


[41](javascript:footNote('G600030/note041.html'))TERRA EST IN MEDIO, ET CETERA.
------------------------------


The earth is in the very middle of the firmament as the centre for the descent of heavy bodies, i.e., a middle point in a round thing.


As I mentioned, the natural position of the water is around the earth, and if it got space without obstruction from the earth, since it is a heavy, liquid, movable body, it would not stop until it would reach the centre of the earth, and it would remain there, because that, as we mentioned, is the last point of the motion of heavy bodies. And the parts of the water are pressing against each other, seeking the centre of the universe as a natural position for themselves if the firmness of the earth permitted them. Since the earth is round and firm, contending with the water, preventing it going to the centre, the water must be spherical around the earth, thus the other two elements that move upwards from the centre to the surrounding circle have a round shape.




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For fire, on account of its lightness, keeps drawing upwards until the firm indestructible sphere of the moon meets it, and since it cannot pass it, it keeps and covers itself under the round axle of that sphere, therefore it must itself be round as is the sphere of the moon that envelopes it (the fire) inside in itself. That sphere is the last course of the motion of light bodies. What makes the air spherical is that it has the surface of the spherical water forced up into its lower boundary and the upper part of the air itself is in the lower boundary of the fire, and since the fire and the water are spherical according to my proof, the air which is enclosed by them must be spherical in accordance with the shape of them.


Such is the position of those very close elements at each other's boundary, that nothing else can be between them, therefore there can be no vacuum in the whole of creation.


[42](javascript:footNote('G600030/note042.html'))NOTUM EST UNUM QUODQUE ELEMENTORUM, ET CETERA.
----------------------------------------------


It is clear that each of the four elements are opposed to each other in their natures, their positions and their motions, for of all things that move from the centre, fire is swiftest, and likewise, of all the things that move to the centre, earth is swiftest; thus, earth and fire are opposed to each other on account of the heating properties of fire producing lightness in it, and on account of the cold properties of earth producing heaviness in it. Observe, when we say that earth and fire, or two other elements, are opposed to each other, that it is the properties of the elements that are understood then to be opposed to each other and not their substances, for the philosopher says in the Liber Praedicamentorum, ‘Substanti nihil est contrarium’,—the substance has nothing of contrariety.


Thus when we say that fire is hot and dry, and earth cold and dry, the heat and cold of those two elements are opposed to each other; while they are in agreement with each other, inasmuch as the dryness effects speed in them.


Thus air and water agree with each other and are opposed to each other. They agree in the passive properties, i.e., the dampness that is the cause of slowness in both. They are opposite in the active properties, i.e., the heat which is the cause of lightness in air and coldness which is the cause of heaviness in water. Thus fire and water are opposite to each other in their active and passive qualities, since fire is warm, dry, swift and light, and water is cold, wet, slow and heavy. Finally, it is clear that things which have a direct motion remain in their own natural places, provided they are not forced out of them.


When one element is changed into another by the force of the second element, or when one element is displaced by force from its own natural position, as
 


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soon as it gets an opportunity or a little help, or when there is no opposition to it, it returns quickly and suddenly to its own nature and its own natural position.


Again, it is clear that everything that moves from the centre is hot and everything that moves to the centre is cold, and that everything that accelerates the motion is unquestionably dry and that everything that retards the motion is unquestionably wet. Thus the Blessed Creator[43](javascript:footNote('G600030/note043.html')) created and arranged the world with its four elements.


[44](javascript:footNote('G600030/note044.html'))ARGUMENTUM AD ROTUNDITATEM TERRAE, ET CETERA.
---------------------------------------------


It is a certain indisputable argument to prove the roundness of the earth, that the rivers run and flow over the surface of the earth. Because if the earth were a flat level surface with no convexity on it, as ignorant men have declared, the rain, which comes from the clouds and which is the cause of rivers, would form one large permanent expanse of sea on the surface of the earth, and would not flow from place to place as it does in now. Therefore, since it flows and does not remain in one place, let it be understood for certain that the earth is round and convex.[45](javascript:footNote('G600030/note045.html'))


Another argument to prove the same thing— If you journeyed from the centre of the world to the North Sea, there would there be discovered to you stars that you never saw in the centre of the world, and some of the Southern stars that you saw in the centre of the world would be concealed from you. So if you made the same journey to the South, there would be discovered to you stars you did not see in the North or centre of the world, and the stars that you saw in these places would be concealed from you. Thus it is certain that it is the convexity of the earth, rising behind you on your journey, that discovers to you the stars before you, and conceals from you the stars behind you.


More on the same subject:—In every place you are throughout the earth, you see some portion of the firmament you did not see anywhere else, and it is proved from that, that the curve around the earth is spherical, and therefore the earth is in the middle of it. Of the same subject still, I add that, on every course which the sun makes around the earth, it illumines the half of the earth, that is exactly opposite it, and it is that light between the sun and the earth
 


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which is always day; and *I say* that the other half of the earth is always dark, owing to the shadow of the earth, and it is that dark shadow which is always night. Thus whatever course the sun makes around the earth, day follows it and night flees before it to the other side of the earth. Hence, the people over whom the sun passes, see sun and day, and they who are at the other side of the earth see stars and night, therefore those things can never be seen during the same course, i.e., sun and stars, night and day, because when we have day on the upper part of the globe there is night in the part beneath, and vice versa.[46](javascript:footNote('G600030/note046.html')) Consider carefully the expression which I used—‘beneath the earth’. For everything that is down underneath the earth, is the earth or one of its parts, and everything that is on every side of the earth, out from the earth, is above. Therefore the earth alone with its parts is below and all the rest of the works of God, on whatever side of the earth they are, are above. Thus on whatever point of the globe people stand, their heads are up and their feet down. Whoever may declare that the earth is a level plane without convexity, whilst sun rises on one side of it and goes down on the other, I say that that cannot possibly be true, and that no reason or argument can be found to prove it; because if this theory were true, the sun would appear small when rising, and according as it mounted higher and approached nearer to us, it would appear larger to us. It is clear to every intelligent person in the world that this is untrue, since we see that it *the sun* is of equal size in the east and west and north of the world.


From this it is proved that the earth, and the course of the sun around the earth, are spherical, and to make this more clearly understood, I shall make a geometrical figure here below, and first I shall make the round figure of the circle of the globe, and write E in the middle of it—in the centre of it, and around that I shall describe a larger circle than that representing the orbit of the sun and place A in the west and B in the top and C in the east of it, and I shall describe a small circle representing the circular body of the sun, beside each of those letters, and then I shall draw three lines from the centre of the earth to the surrounding circle of the sun, one of those lines to A, the second to B, and the third to C. And it is evident to everyone who considers them that those three lines are even—equal each to each.


Therefore the earth is equidistant from each, wherever the sun is, at its rising or setting, or when it is at the highest point of its course, and thus it is evident that the earth, and the circuit of the sun around the earth, are equidistant. 


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Whoever should declare as an argument against this that the sun appears distinctly larger[47](javascript:footNote('G600030/note047.html')) when rising or setting than it does at the highest point at mid-day, and that it is understood from this that it is further away at mid-day, than when it is in those other quarters, and that this proves that the earth is a level plane without convexity, I reply *to him* appropriately, in giving a solution for that argument, that that often happens, but not always, and when it does happen the reason is—when the sun is rising or setting, it draws up the moisture and the rain and black wet vapours rise to a great height between us and it, and then, when we look at the sun, that mist which is seen broadens and amplifies the sphere of vision within it[48](javascript:footNote('G600030/note048.html')), therefore, according to the denseness and materiality of that mist, does the sun appear larger through it, than it would appear without that mist being present. As the day advances, and the sun is at the highest point of the firmament with no mist between us and it, then we see it with its own proper size.


The example is clearly illustrated in the case of the naked person under water, because he appears larger to the sight under water than out of water; although there is no proof in that, except the fact of the wet dense water spreading and amplifying the sight, and preventing it from passing directly and naturally towards the person. The same reason is the cause of an object appearing larger and thicker through glass than otherwise. Consequently old people, who are losing their sight so that they cannot read small letters, use glass spectacles[49](javascript:footNote('G600030/note049.html')) to magnify the letters they read, and for the same reason the sun appears larger in the early morning and in the evening than at mid-day, as I have mentioned.


If any ignorant person should make the same statement, i.e., that the earth is a level plane and the sun a round orb encircling the earth, and that the people of the world in general can see it at the same time as it would rise in one place, I should say that that was false, if it were stated. To understand it, imagine two cities in your own mind, one in the east and the other in the west of the world, 


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and imagine if the earth were a level plane without convexity (as this opinion has hitherto maintained), that the people of the city in the east of the world would see the sun rise in their own proximity as a large mass, and, having traversed its circuit, they would see it setting in the west as a smaller mass. Vice versa, the people of the city in the west of the world would see the sun rise as a small mass, on account of its being distant from them, and set close to them, as a much larger mass on account of its proximity to them. *But we have never heard of any such thing. In addition to this we may point out*[50](javascript:footNote('G600030/note050.html')), the first half of the day would seem shorter to the people of the eastern city than the latter half. In the same manner the latter half of the day would seem shorter to the people of the western city than the first half.


We, and the learned, have an unquestionable proof that the day is of equal length at equal distances from the middle point of the day at those two cities, and in every place in the world, and that it is error and lack of knowledge which caused the other opinion to be upheld. It is clearly proved from that equality of the first and last half of the day that the sun moves in a circular orbit[51](javascript:footNote('G600030/note051.html')) about the spherical earth[52](javascript:footNote('G600030/note052.html')).


To further illustrate this subject, and to confute that theory, I will make a geometrical figure here below.


First I will draw a straight line called the surface of the earth, and above it a circle, which I will call the path of the course of the sun, and I will make a diagram of a city on the eastern end of the line and write the letter A above it, and in the western end of the same line I will make a diagram of another city and write B above it, and C at the point of the rising of the sun, and D at the point of its setting, and E at mid-day of the eastern city, and F at mid-day of the western. Consequently when the sun rises at a point C, and advances to E, the first half of the day in the eastern city is spent, and the second stage, from E to D has not arrived, and again when the sun rises at a point C and advances to F, the first half of the day in the western city is spent and the second stage from F to D has not arrived, accordingly day at each of those cities would have one part longer than the other, because it is much longer from E to D, the 


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last part of the day in the eastern city, than from C to E, the first part of the day in the same city. Again, it is much longer from C to F, the first part of the day in the western city, than from F to D, the last part of the same day. And it is evident to everyone on earth who wishes to examine it closely that that is untrue, therefore the statements out of which it arises are erroneous, i.e., that the earth is a level plane without convexity, and therefore, in the interests of truth, it is declared that the earth is convex and spherical.


As a proof that it is true, the sun does not set in the same place in regard to any two cities in world, and, if you change your position, you change the sunset in regard to you. As a proof of that
— If you were in the city of Jerusalem, in regard to you, the sun would set in Rome, and if you were there, it would set in the west of France, in regard to you, and on your being there, it would set in the west of Spain in regard to you. After that some place in the Atlantic Ocean would conceal it from you, and if[53](javascript:footNote('G600030/note053.html')) sea could support you, and if you could follow the sun, it would change its setting in regard to you every day that you would follow it, until at last it would set in the place in which you saw it rising, when you were in the city of Jerusalem.[54](javascript:footNote('G600030/note054.html'))


It is certain there is no difference in the sunset, but the convexity of the earth constantly coming between us and it *causes it*, because if the earth were a level plane according to that theory just mentioned, there would be only one place where the sun would rise in regard to the inhabitants of the world, and one place where it would set. Consequently since there are a number of places where it rises and sets, the earth must be round and not a level plane.


Therefore the Eternal First Cause who ordered it thus, blessed be He forever.[55](javascript:footNote('G600030/note055.html'))


[56](javascript:footNote('G600030/note056.html'))MARIA ET FLUMINA DIVERSA LOCA MUTANT, ET CETERA.
------------------------------------------------


The sea and the rivers change in many places, but it is not evident that it happens until after many centuries. In this manner does that change come about: as the waters break the hills, the earth of the hills falls to the bottom of the waters, and fills up the place of the water, and since the waters are forced out of their own position, they must occupy some other place where they can get room. By reason of that the sea washes over and submerges cities, towns and districts in which are the abodes of men in valleys and low


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places near the sea. The moisture[57](javascript:footNote('G600030/note057.html')) that comes from the clouds is the cause of this, because when it falls, it flows constantly about the earth rooting up the soil, and everything insoluble and non-resistant that it finds in the earth it carries from place to place in the rivers, and the force of the rivers carries off the same things to the sea, and the bottom of the sea is filled with them[58](javascript:footNote('G600030/note058.html')). On that account must the sea vacate that spot and seek some other. The hills break the place whither they go, and fill the valleys, therefore the dwelling places and domains of men change, i.e., cities, lands, hills and valleys.


For it is a natural thing for water, since it is fluid, not to be always in one place, but to travel from place to place. Consequently, the rivers carry the weakest soil with them to the sea, and from being a very long time there it becomes firm and hardens and becomes petrified,[59](javascript:footNote('G600030/note059.html')) and from the constant beating of the waves beneath it and above it, the stones are carved and polished and assume different shapes. Some of them become round, some broad, some long and some short. Likewise the rivers bring, the sand and light stones to the sea, and they are gathered together by the beating to and fro of the waves outside, and after many hundreds of years it *i.e., the new earth, formed as described* mounts and rises up over the sea, and hills and mountains are formed from it,[60](javascript:footNote('G600030/note060.html')) and the sea sends some of it towards other lands, and that is the material from which cities and lands are formed.


As a proof that it is true, there are to be seen in many places that have been submerged, stone houses, castles, churches and carved stones and planks, and many unquestionable signs from which it is proved that human habitations were some time in those places.


Another fact to prove the same thing; there will be found plainly in the summits of the hills and mountains, the paths and roads of the sea, which resembles the ridges and the small irregular furrows that are seen in the mud of the sea when the tide has ebbed. Also there are found many shells and small sea fish in the same places which have become hard, firm and petrified.[61](javascript:footNote('G600030/note061.html')) In the same manner the rain forms the mountains and valleys of the world, because, when the rain flows into a place where it finds the soil weak, it turns it up and forms a furrow in it, and the edge of the furrow, on either side falls, both sand and soil, into the channel by the strength of the water and the water brings that with it to the rivers, and the rivers carry it to the sea, and from the excess of rain over a very long period ever falling into those furrows and constantly carrying away the soil and sand, those furrows become valleys of the sea, and at last the earth is left in hills and large mountains between them; and thus did the blessed Creator of the world order that.




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[62](javascript:footNote('G600030/note062.html'))CALOR ET FRIGUS OPUS VEHEMENS IN TERRAM, ETCETERA.
--------------------------------------------------


Intense and swift are the actions that cold and heat perform in the earth. For in summer the heat of the sun warms the surface of the earth, and since two contrary things do not endure to remain in the same place, the cold flies before the heat to the bowels of the earth and that makes the water which it finds under the earth cold, and on that account the water of the wells is cold in summer. For the same reason, on account of the *great* distance of the sun from us in winter,[63](javascript:footNote('G600030/note063.html')) the cold gains strength then on the surface of this whole earth, and sends the heat flying in before it to the interior of the earth. Therefore the water of the wells is warm in winter; and when, in the summer, that cold is in the middle of the earth in all its strength, it concentrates and compresses itself there, since the solidity and firmness of the earth does not allow it to escape, and the further in it is, the greater is its power and strength. In the winter when the cold of the earth's surface sends the heat into the centre of the earth, and finds the prisoner inside before it, i.e., the cold of the centre of the earth, they act upon each other, and each of them seeks to destroy the other, and the earth shakes; and it is to that shaking that terrae
motus, i.e., earthquake[64](javascript:footNote('G600030/note064.html')), is applied. It results from that shock that the earth is cut and broken and great wind accompanied by thunder and noise comes forth from that breach, and the wind carries with it sods of earth and stones, and no person, animal, castle, or any other solid thing that one of those stones would strike, could escape its passing through them.


It often happens at a time of terrae
motus that the sun is darkened; and the cause of that darkness is that the strong wind, that comes from that rupture of the earth, blows much dust and sods with strength and force from it up into the air. And that dust is like a cloud between the earth and the sun, and cuts off the light of the sun from the surrounding nations.


At another time the terrae
motus breaks the earth under the sea, and the wind that comes out of the water blows up into the air and makes the sea rage in a terrible manner.[65](javascript:footNote('G600030/note065.html')) The same shock tears hills and mountains when there is a disturbance beneath them, so that it leaves deep dark crevices which appear bottomless.


Moreover, waters taste differently according as they are situated in different places. Although all waters have the same substance, they adopt an accidental peculiarity according to the taste of the earth in which they are situated. Consequently, the water that is in a stony, sandy place has a sweet taste, and the water that is in salt earth has a salty taste, and the water that is in clay soil has a flat taste, and the water that is in acid earth, where there are stones of 


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sulfur or alum, or a place where there is a brass or copper mine or other acids, that water has a bitter taste; therefore, in accordance with the accidental peculiarity of the taste of the soil in which the waters are, does the water change the accident of taste.


Also, when the rivers that flow on the surface of the earth encounter weak, movable soil they pierce through it and make secret paths for themselves in it beneath the earth, until they meet immovable earth that does not let them pass to this side or that. Since, when, they thus come in conflict below, the earth breaks overhead, and they are converted into wells, according to the greatness or smallness of the underground streams whence they come, or according to the quantity of the rain, from whence the streams come, since it is in accordance with that that the wells fill or dry up.


The cause of the saltiness of the sea is its own antiquity and the constant beating of the waves around its stones, and the course of the sun being always above it, and because the sweetest parts of the water are driven from it by the heat of the sun.[66](javascript:footNote('G600030/note066.html')) For the heat of the sun draws the most volatile and sweetest part of the water of the sea up into the clouds of the air, and from that are made the dew and the rain and the snow and the hailstones and every other phenomenon from above. It leaves below the heaviest, most solid, most material, and sourest portion. From its similar nature, human urine is sour, for the same action as is performed by the sun upon the sea, is performed by the bile[67](javascript:footNote('G600030/note067.html')) upon the urine, as it filters it and extracts the volatile parts from it.


From the same cause water that receives much boiling becomes bitter, as the heat of the fire vapourises it. When that salt seawater receives much boiling on the fire, or from the sun in warm countries, it becomes crystallised[68](javascript:footNote('G600030/note068.html')) and solidified, and adopts the nature of the earth, and that is the salt we use. That effect is produced by the excessive boiling, caused by fire or by the sun vapourising them *i.e., the waters*. They are thus strained, and become solid and converted into the nature of the earth in accordance with (their) solidity. And sometimes fresh water, and particularly the water of rivers, is bound by the intensity of the cold and converted into ice. The natural heat that is in the sea, and the fact that it is still, does not permit it to take that binding upon itself from the cold, because it is the nature of cold to bind everything that flows and the nature of heat to dissolve every bound thing, as the philosophers say.




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[69](javascript:footNote('G600030/note069.html'))Concerning the two volcanoes, Etna in Sicily and Vesuvius in Apulia, in the sulfurous region. DICO QUOD OCCASIO HUlUS IGNIS EST, ETCETERA.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


I declare that it is the amount of the sulfur which is the cause of the fire that is constantly burning, and this is how it is: When the fire begins, to perform an action in the veins of sulfur beneath the earth it continues always to burn the sulfur and the earth before if, so that it cannot be extinguished.


Consequently it makes holes and crevices before it in the earth, and when the sulfur that is naturally. in it comes to the end, it grows again. When it grows, it turns again and burns it again, and that growth of the sulfur and the burning of the fire are ever increasing, and the flame as it rises from it, throws up many balls and masses of fire which come forth from the substance of the sulfur, and they collect in one direction and mountains are formed from them.


There is often heard a great, terrible sound from the wind going into those hollows and blowing with the flame as it comes out. The waters that are generated from these fiery places are hot, for as I have mentioned, the waters receive *their* accident from the place whence they come.[70](javascript:footNote('G600030/note070.html'))




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[71](javascript:footNote('G600030/note071.html'))LUNA VISIBILITER IN MARE, ETCETERA.
-----------------------------------


The moon acts visibly on the sea and on the other moist things, for the philosophers say that the sea never ceases flowing from the time the moon is in the east of its circuit until the time it is at the topmost part of the circuit, and that it does not cease then constantly ebbing until it is setting in the westerly point of its circuit, and that it does not cease then constantly flowing until the moon is in the middle point of its circuit beneath the earth; and from that again that it does not cease constantly ebbing until it is in the easterly point of its circuit, and then it begins again flowing as it did before.


Thus, according to the rising and setting of the moon, the sea never ceases flowing and ebbing, and when the moon is in the same degree as the sun, then its light is greatest and strongest, i.e., at the beginning, of each month, and it is then the ebb and flow of the tide are greatest.[72](javascript:footNote('G600030/note072.html')) In the second course *of the moon* the ebb and flow of the tide are greatest in the middle of every month, when the moon has its full light,[73](javascript:footNote('G600030/note073.html')) facing us, for it is then the light of the sun is reflected down from the moon towards the sea and brings about the ebb and flow of the tide.[74](javascript:footNote('G600030/note074.html'))


Thus, too, the moon reveals the same acts in the marrow, brain, and blood of men, because those three things are increased and decreased in the beginning and middle of every month according to the course of the moon. And, accordingly, diseases caused by bad blood, such as boils and many other things, do not occur except at the beginning and middle of every month.


The actions of the moon are evident again in accordance with increase and decrease, in the cucumbers and gourds and in every thing in which moisture preponderates, according to the course of the moon. The natural cause of that is that the moon controls moist things and particularly the water of the sea, as lodestone does iron,[75](javascript:footNote('G600030/note075.html')) for as lodestone attracts the iron to itself, in the same way the moon attracts the water of the sea, and that is termed the flow of the
 


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tide. When, that attraction ceases, the tide turns back to its own position, and that is termed ebb.


This ebb and flow are more visible in the east and west of the world than in the Red Sea or in the African Sea[76](javascript:footNote('G600030/note076.html')) or in the other seas that come from the Great Ocean, for some of these have a straight course directly west, in others the tide flows directly east through the power of the operation of the moon above them, consequently that flow or ebb is not evident on the shores of the sea in those places.


To explain those operations of the moon as regards the ebb and flow of the tide, I will make a geometrical figure here below:


Firstly, I will make the round figure of the earth and divide it into four equal parts, and write these four letters in their respective places around these four divisions, i.e., A. B, C, D. And around the earth I will describe the figure of the sphere of the moon, and place E in the east of it and F in the centre of the top and G in the west and H in the centre of the lower part, and I will darken half of the globe to represent the sea and leave the other half dry and white. Thus when the moon is in the east of its own circle at a point E exactly opposite A, the tide then begins to fill and does not cease constantly filling until the moon reaches point F that is opposite D, and then the tide begins to ebb and does not cease constantly, ebbing until the moon reaches point G which is opposite C. It is ever filling until the moon reaches point H opposite D, and it is ever again ebbing, until the moon arrives opposite A.




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[77](javascript:footNote('G600030/note077.html'))SOLENT QUIDAM IMPERIT ASSERERE, ETCETERA.
-----------------------------------------


Some of the ignorant declare that the flood of the river Nile is caused by the great rains that fall in distant lands, and as the river fills, it bursts forth throughout the land of Egypt, and what rain does for the other races, the water of the river Nile does for the Egyptians. I declare that they have no argument or reason to prove that statement, except one single theory, because, as they see the other rivers of the world becoming swollen by rains, they think that the river Nile is thus swollen.


I will now prove that that theory is false, because if the rains were the cause of the flooding of the river Nile, as they declared, it would become swollen, with no special period for its filling, every time it should rain heavily throughout the year as the other rivers become swollen. It is clear to everyone who sees it that that river does not become swollen except at a particular time of the year, i.e., in the month of August; but when there is a plentiful fall of rain in some district near Egypt that river becomes slightly swollen on account of that rain, because rain that falls in districts distant from Egypt never increases the river Nile on account of the great distance of the source of the river from Egypt, and of the exceeding dryness of the soil. Consequently, at whatever period of spring or summer or any other season rain falls, the sandy, very dry soil and the parching of the sun absorbs the rain water, and does not allow it advance to the river; or, when the river is swollen from excessive rain together with the great sudden floods, the heat of the earth around the river is so great, that no sooner are the floods at their full, than the earth absorbs them. The water in that river is seldom accidental, and it is always filled bank to bank with its own water.


As a proof of that: if you made a trench two or three hundred miles long through the dry earth, although you might pour a great amount of water into one end of it, the earth would absorb it all before one drop would reach the other end of it; thus does the parched, hot soil of the river Nile absorb the waters that fall around it before they reach Egypt; consequently rain is not the cause of the flooding of the river Nile.


Another fact to prove the same thing as I heard from my own elders[78](javascript:footNote('G600030/note078.html')): the Egyptians thought at one period that the river Nile would not rise until the fairest maiden of greatest beauty in Egypt should be cast into it, and because they were obliged to get the overflow of the river to moisten the earth, since that is what they have instead of rain, they used to cast the most beautiful maiden that could be found in the whole land into the river in the beginning of the month of August, and the hour after that the river used to be filled, not on account of the woman being cast into it but because its own time had come, and it used to fill all Egypt around it. And this kind *of evil practice*  was in vogue in Egypt until the time of Omar, King of Egypt. As he saw her die by 


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that rude, sinful, evil custom in the beginning of the month of August, he composed a short letter[79](javascript:footNote('G600030/note079.html')), and said in it, ‘In the name of the merciful Lord, Thomarus,[80](javascript:footNote('G600030/note080.html')) King of Egypt; Life and health to the river Nile, and if it be thy will O River Nile, through the powers of God to pour thy water on the land of Egypt, we pray thee do so now; and if it be not thy will, we have no reliance in thee.’


He put the letter then into the river, yet not on account of the letter nor on account of the woman, but because its own time had come, it overflowed its banks mightily and filled Egypt. Consequently, if that flood resulted from those rains, since rain falls frequently during the year, the river would become swollen frequently. Thus as that theory is false, I shall disclose the true cause of the flood of the river Nile.


I declare that the source of the river is between the east of the world and the southern quarter; between the west of the world and the northern quarter, it enters the sea. The atmosphere of Egypt is warm and dry, so that it but seldom admits wind or clouds or rain to exist in it. For although the surrounding countries experience wind, that air condenses and contracts, so that it is accompanied by a very great storm that clouds or rain enter the boundary of that air, and when it enters—which is seldom—there is terrible thunder and very great wind and lightning, which kills the flocks of Egypt. It is the nature of air in general to spread and expand, when it becomes warm; and when it grows cold to press together, and it contracts and draws towards it everything like unto it. The sea air is colder in the night than in the day, consequently, when the sun reaches its mid-day position, through the heat of the sun the air spreads and expands and the wind blows from that time until midnight into the mouths of the rivers which flow westwards into the sea, and (the wind) opposes the rivers, and drives them forcibly back, and does not permit them to flow into the sea until the cold of the night lessens the strength of the heat of the sun; and, consequently, the conflict with the streams results from the heat of the atmosphere and the flowing into the sea from the coldness of the atmosphere. As the sea air is warmer in the day than in the night, and it is owing to the proximity of the sun to us and its distance from us that that change comes over the atmosphere; thus, at the time of the year the sun is nearest to us, i.e., the summer, the sea air is hottest. Consequently on the first day of the month of May until the sun enters the September equinox the sea-breeze blows eastwards towards Egypt over the river Nile, and joins with the air of Egypt to set it in motion and expel it from its own place.


Since that air is dry, heavy, and difficult to move, it opposes the wind and does not abandon its own place, and since the wind that is always blowing finds no other course, 


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it turns the river Nile forcibly back, and does not allow a drop of it to enter the sea, and the same wind sweeps much of the sea sand forcibly into the mouth of the river Nile.


Consequently, since the river is prevented from flowing into the sea, it becomes flooded throughout Egypt, and that flood continues as long as the wind has its own force, i.e., during the time I have just mentioned, from the first day of May until the September equinox. Then the wind begins to lose its strength, and the sun leaves its position directly over the sea, and sinks by degrees in the southern quarter of the world. When the water of the river finds no opposition from the wind as it did up to this, it breaks the mountain of sand and proceeds on to the sea and departs from Egypt; and then the Egyptians plough and sow, since they are certain that the river will not hinder them until that season again. Consequently, it is evident that they would be often hindered earlier than that season if the flood of the river Nile resulted from rains.


The rivers of the other lands which flow into the Western sea experience the same flooding although it does not happen to them so much as it does to the river Nile, for there is only weak movable air, that does not contend with the wind, and moves in every direction in which it is carried into the other lands. On that account no other river in (other) countries is as wide as the river Nile at its flood; and may He who created the river Nile be blessed forever in saecula saeculorum.


[81](javascript:footNote('G600030/note081.html'))DICO SICUT SUPERIUS VERACITER, ETCETERA.
----------------------------------------


I declare truly, as I declared in the beginning, that light bodies are the bodies that move from the centre to the surrounding circle, and that heavy bodies are the bodies that move from that to the centre, and that the four elements and everything that is composed of them have these two direct motions. Consequently, since the firmament does not move from the centre, or to the centre,[82](javascript:footNote('G600030/note082.html')) let it be understood that it is neither heavy nor light; because if it were heavy, it would move to the centre; and if it were light, it would move from the centre, and since we understand it to be neither one nor the other, we must assume it to be neither hot nor cold, because it is in hot bodies like fire that lightness is, and since that is not light, as we proved, there cannot be heat in it; and since it is in heavy bodies like the earth cold is, since the firmament is not heavy, there cannot he cold in it. Let it be understood again from that that the firmament is neither wet nor dry, because wetness causes slowness in the body in which it is, as it does in air, which moves from the centre, and in water, which moves to the centre. Thus dryness effects velocity in the bodies in which it is, as it does in fire which moves from the centre, and in earth which moves to the centre. Since there is neither swiftness nor slowness in the 


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firmament, it is at no time swifter or slower than at another, since God created it, but it had, has, and will have one identical, steady, constant motion until the end of the world. Consequently there is no wetness nor dryness in it from which swiftness or slowness could result. Similarly, it is the same motion that the sphere of the constellations and the seven spheres of the seven planets have, had, and will have until the end of the world.


There are some ignorant men who are uninformed as regards the works of God, who say that the firmament was composed from the four elements, which is clearly contrary to truth, for since the four elements possess a nature different in everything from the nature of the firmament, reason can not admit that the firmament could be composed of these. Because, as I said before, it is the nature of the four elements, that some of them move towards the centre, and others out from the centre, and that that motion occurs at regular intervals, and is slower at the end than at the beginning, and that they (the elements) are permanent in their own places, and that they never leave those places except by force, for each of the four elements is equal to the other as regards length of existence and natural permanence.


Besides, the four elements possess various properties; heat and cold, wetness and dryness, lightness and heaviness, swiftness and slowness, and the nature of the firmament is directly opposed to those natures; because in opposition to the vertical motion of the four elements, there is the circular motion of the firmament, and in opposition to the periodical occurrence of that motion, is the perpetuity in the motion of the firmament, and in opposition to the swiftness and tardiness of that motion, is the perpetual slowness in the motion of the firmament. In opposition to that lasting permanency of the four elements, in their own positions, is the permanent natural motion of the firmament in its own position. And as the four elements and their state of permanency are of equal antiquity, in the same way, the firmament and its motion are of equal antiquity, and is without any of these properties of the four elements, for there is neither heat nor cold, wetness or dryness in it, nor lightness or heaviness, nor swiftness nor slowness.


As the parts of the four elements are made, they never become corrupted nor changed but (are) as they were from the beginning of the world, firm, compact, indestructible, indissoluble, and thus they will be until the end which the Creator ordered for them. Consequently, since the nature of the four elements and the nature of the firmament are directly opposed to each other, it is against reason to say that the firmament was composed of the four elements.


Another reason against the same theory: Every object that is compounded from contrary elements that work against each other and corrupting each other, the whole corrupts in the end; such includes mankind and animals, and everything else that is composed of the four elements in which the opposite properties of the four elements destroy each other. And when one property prevails over the other, the thing that is composed of them is completely destroyed. Consequently, if the firmament were composed of the four elements, owing to those opposite qualities being mutually destructive, in the end the firmament would be dissolved and would perish.




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Thus since no sign of the dissolution is, has been, or will be, observed, let it be understood that it (the firmament) is far from being composed of the four elements. Thus may He who ordered it in such wise be blessed by everyone who would behold it.


[83](javascript:footNote('G600030/note083.html'))QUANDO DEUS FIRMAMENTUM CREAVIT, ET CETERA.
-------------------------------------------


When God created the firmament He ordained a full perfect motion that never increases or decreases; since in twenty-four hours the firmament completes its course without fail and without deception, and those twenty-four hours are day and night.


God also made the sphere of the sun to manifest day and night; and their nature, their length, and shortness, and to manifest the regularity of the heavens, and the difference of increase and decrease of heat and cold in different places, in order to propagate creatures from each other, and to fulfil the order of the world, because if the firmament and the sun moved more quickly than they do, the days and nights would be shortened, the sun would not have time to fulfil its functions, and terrestrial creatures would refuse to grow; and if they moved more slowly than they do, night and day would he lengthened, and, consequently, as the sun would be too long over the earth, it would parch and dry up the surface of the earth, and would permit nothing to grow in the soil. Thus men could not dwell in the southern part of the world, as they do now at a distance of sixteen degrees from the equator because if the sun stayed too long, it would make that place uninhabitable[84](javascript:footNote('G600030/note084.html')). Similarly, at about the end of sixty-six degrees[85](javascript:footNote('G600030/note085.html')) of the firmament northwards from the same line, the region beneath them would be uninhabitable on account of the cold of the very long night. The region from the end of those sixty-six degrees is uninhabitable on account of excessive cold as far as the region that is under the sun's course. For the sun inclines towards the south side of the world, the cold increases so much on the north side, that animals cannot dwell in it and the trees do not grow. And so men or animals cannot dwell south of the aforementioned line on account of excessive heat, and in the land that is 


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nearest that line on the inside are the Negroes[86](javascript:footNote('G600030/note086.html')) who are darkened by the excessive heat of the sun.


I mentioned above that there are none of the opposite qualities in the firmament from which every corruption and dissolution results, and consequently they have no opposite motion, since the motion of every body in the universe must be circular or vertical or a compound of both as is the motion of a cart wheel. The circular and vertical motions are simple, consequently every body, simple or compound, moves in a circle or vertically. But circular motion is the motion that moves like a circle around a centre, and vertical motion is the motion that moves from a centre upwards *or* to a centre downwards, and the three motions are simple motions, and the circular motion is simpler than the other two motions, because the body that moves thus is simpler than any other body.


Those two motions that move to and from the centre are compound compared to the circular motion, and they, are simple compared to the motion of things that are composed of the four elements, because, in reality, there is no compound motion but that one, and though each of the four elemental bodies is composed of two qualities, they are simple compared to the bodies that are composed of them (the elements). Thus the circular motion, on account of its being naturally a perfect motion without beginning or end, its course does not permit of being stationary or of turning back. Not so is the vertical motion, which sometimes moves independently of the bodies, for when some element is outside of its own natural position, it moves suddenly back towards its own place and remains naturally there; thus that motion has beginning and end, and the thing that has a beginning and an end is imperfect; consequently the vertical motion is an imperfect motion. As every perfect thing is superior to, and greater, more permanent, and more noble than every imperfect thing, in the same way, circular motion in the same degrees surpasses vertical motion.


Additional proof of the same thing: the philosophers declare that the motion that is foreign to one thing is natural to another, for instance the upward motion of fire and of earth or the downward motion of both. As every non-essential thing is accidental, and every essential natural thing is a substance, and as the accident and the substance are opposite to each other, in the same way the non-essential motion and the natural motion are opposite to each other. Not only (that), but things that are below and above, right and left, before and behind, are contrary to one another. And as everything which has not contrariety is nobler than that which has, in the same way the circular motion which has no contrariety is superior to every other motion I have mentioned.


Additional proof of the same thing: everything that moves naturally with a vertical motion can be moved by force and contrary to nature, but such is not 


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the case with the circular motion, for the spherical circular course which was ordered for it at the beginning of the world, it was, is, and forever will be preserving this without fail, and without moving to any one side of it. Consequently it is clear that the circular motion is superior to any other motion, and more constant.


Although each of the spheres of the firmament has a separate motion, they all move together without opposition; for, if there were contrariety in the firmament as there is in the elemental bodies, everything it effects in them would cause a similar effect in the firmament, and thus the strongest body in the firmament would change the weakest body into its own nature, and similarly we should see the planets, and constellations, and the other stars at one time larger, at another smaller than one another. This is not seen now, and was not, and never will be seen. Thus it is clear whence those changes, i.e., the contrariety in the firmament can be understood.


Thus is the great smooth, firm body in the firmament—a round sphere like a ball, around its own centre, its centre in a middle point, which remains for ever in one point, and ever moving and it is certain that the motion is uniform since it has never made the least halt, and does not move swifter or slower at one time more than another, and thus are the seven spheres of the seven planets— the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the fixed stars and the sphere of the twelve signs,[87](javascript:footNote('G600030/note087.html')) i.e., the sphere which we call the firmament[88](javascript:footNote('G600030/note088.html')). Thus were those ten spheres since the time God created them, and thus will they be forever, as long as He wishes them to be thus.


The uninformed[89](javascript:footNote('G600030/note089.html')) say that the primary properties of the elements, and the properties of the things that are compounded of them, are contained in the twelve signs and in the planets, and they declare that Aries, Leo, and Sagittarius are warm and dry in accordance with the nature of fire; and Taurus, Virgo, and Capricornus cold and dry of the nature of earth; Gemini, Libra, and Aquarius warm and wet of the nature of air; Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces cold and wet according to the nature of water. And they say that some of those signs are movable, and some firm and immovable, and some neutral. They say also that some of them are male and some female, some light and some dark, and they say that some of the planets are good and some bad, and that some of them are favourable and auspicious for good people, and others unfavourable, adverse, 


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and inauspicious for bad people.[90](javascript:footNote('G600030/note090.html')) They say again, if the sun were not hot in its own substance, it would not perform the functions of heat which we see in terrestrial things, for it performs the very same functions in terrestrial things as does fire—which is hot in its own substance—namely; burning, parching, and charring.


They say again, that if the moon were not wet in itself it would not produce wetness in terrestrial things. Against this, I declare that that theory is scientifically incorrect and false; and I declare that the signs of the firmament are neither wet, nor hot, nor cold, nor good, nor bad; although it is from their union (together) and from their motion that they produce those properties; although (in themselves) they are not present in terrestrial things, because they were all made from one substance and one material; and I will explain this in more detail afterwards.[91](javascript:footNote('G600030/note091.html'))


[92](javascript:footNote('G600030/note092.html'))SCIENDUM EST, ETCETERA.
-----------------------


It is evident that it is not by their taste or by their odour that the natures of natural bodies are known, for if they were recognised by their colours, all white bodies would have the same nature, and everything of the same colour or taste would be of the same nature; for we see that snow and dough and fresh cheese have the same colour although each of them has a different nature. We see again that, although parsley and aloes agree in pungency, they are not of the same nature since one is sharp and the other mild; and in the same way we speak of smell. Consequently, not by their taste or smell or touch, is the nature of the natural bodies known, but by their positions and motions.


The ill-informed declare that the firmament changes[93](javascript:footNote('G600030/note093.html')) in parts, or in its own entirety, with length of time, although that change is not apparent to us, as we see gold, iron, the body, jacinth and many other precious stones becoming discoloured with age and length of time, and changing in size, colour, taste and smell with length of time, although we are not aware of that change when it is in progress, on account of the great extent of time during which it is carried on.


I say to them in answer, that everything that is beneath the moon in the sphere of the four elements undergoes change, and that change is of two kinds—complete and partial—and those two changes concern growth and decay, and the complete change is more evident than the partial. Every body that is changed, undergoes that change in quantity or quality, and the actions of the body make that change evident to us; for when an unsound body becomes sound, and a sound unsound, it is the actions of that body that make that 


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change evident to us. So, when a heavy body becomes light, the actions of the same body make that change evident to us. Thus, when a slow body becomes swift or a swift slow, it is the swiftness or slowness of that body that makes that motion evident to us.


Thus if the firmament were increased or decreased, its actions would manifest that change to us. For were it augmented and extended, and the constellations placed further from us than they are, we should see then a smaller quantity of them than we do now observe, and there are many of them which we see now, that we should not see then. Consequently, when it would have closed in around the earth, the quantity of the stars would seem to us more prodigious then than now, and then we would see many stars that we did not see before. Now, since no one ever has seen these changes in the firmament, for if he had, it would be found written; it is sure and certain, that the firmament suffers neither increase nor decrease, and has neither contracted nor expanded[94](javascript:footNote('G600030/note094.html')).


Similarly if the firmament inclined to its right or to its left, or forwards or backwards, or if it moved up or down from the position in which it is, the centre, i.e., the earth, must necessarily change with it but the earth cannot leave its own position, since it has no place to go; for every place around it is full of other bodies; and since two bodies cannot on any account occupy the same place, the earth cannot leave its own position to join other bodies, and consequently the firmament must be in a permanent, immovable, immutable position around the earth for ever. If it were said that the change of the firmament resulted from the failure or decrease of its substance, as the human body becomes weakened by ill-health, in the same way the motion of the firmament would be weakened, as is the walk of a sick man. In the same way the hours and seasons would be changed—a thing that has never happened, for they have always had the same course and have today, and will have it for ever.


Thus, since the substance, or quality, or quantity, or position, or motion, or time of the firmament, or of the rising, or setting, or concealment, or revealing of the stars are not changed, and since that has never happened, and never will happen, it must necessarily be one firm immovable system that it had, has, and will have, as long as He who created it desires, and it must have a nature other than the nature of the four elements.




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[95](javascript:footNote('G600030/note095.html'))QUI PERFECTE CIRCULOS LINEASQUE ETCETERA..
------------------------------------------


Whoever could perfectly understand the circles, lines and points of the firmament, would understand without doubt the nature of the whole firmament, and the proper way to understand it is to consider its form and shape as it is in itself, and ponder it carefully from the inside in your reason and mind. The position of the first circle[96](javascript:footNote('G600030/note096.html')) of the firmament is as follows— From the eastern point to the central upper point above the earth, and from that to the western point, and from that to the central lower point beneath the earth, and from that again to the eastern point whence it began at first. That circle is called orientalis and occidentalis, i.e., the eastern or the western circle, and is also called the circle of the straight line, because when the sun is in that straight line, day and night are equal in the countries of the whole world. The situation of the second circle[97](javascript:footNote('G600030/note097.html')) is from the point of the Arctic (Celestial) Pole to the upper point of the firmament, and from that to the point of the Antarctic (Celestial) Pole and from that to the central lower point of the firmament beneath the earth, and from that to the point of the Arctic (Celestial) Pole whence it previously began. There are three other names which philosophers apply to that circle—septentrionalis, australis and meridionalis—the northern circle, the southern circle, or the meridian circle[98](javascript:footNote('G600030/note098.html')). The situation of the third circle[99](javascript:footNote('G600030/note099.html')) is from the eastern point of the firmament to the point of the Antarctic (Celestial) Pole, and from that to the western point of the firmament, and from that to the point of the Arctic (Celestial) Pole, and from that to the eastern point of the firmament. This circle is called circulus terminorum or circulus signorum—the circle of the boundaries[100](javascript:footNote('G600030/note100.html')), or the circle of the Signs[101](javascript:footNote('G600030/note101.html')).


This is the position of the first of the three lines of the firmament, from the eastern point of the firmament through the middle point of the earth, to the western point of the firmament. The second line (is) from the central upper point of the firmament above the earth through the middle point of the earth, to the central lower point of the firmament beneath the earth. The third line (is) from the Arctic (Celestial) Pole through the middle point of the earth to the point of the Antarctic (Celestial) Pole.


Here below are the seven points of the firmament—six of them in the six places where the three circles I mentioned cross each other, and where the six ends of the three lines I mentioned are. The seventh point is the centre of the earth, which is the centre of the whole universe. The first of these points is situated in the east of the firmament in the place where circulus terminorum and circulus orientalis or occidentalis cross each other. The second point 


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(is) in the centre top zenith of the firmament, over the earth, in the place where circulus orientalis or occidentalis and circulus septentrionalis or australis cross each other. The third point, (is) in the west of the firmament, in the place where the circulus orientalis or occidentalis and circulus terminorum cross each other. The fourth point, (is) in the centre bottom of the firmament, below the earth in the place where the circulus septentrionalis or australis and circulus orientalis or occidentalis cross each other. The fifth point, (is) in the north of the firmament, in the place where the circulus septentrionalis or australis and the circulus terminorum[102](javascript:footNote('G600030/note102.html')) cross each other. The sixth point, (is) in the south of the firmament, in the place where circulus terminorum and circulus septentrionalis or australis cross each other. The seventh point, as I remarked, is the centre of the earth which is the centre of the whole universe, where the three lines I mentioned cross each other; and that is the situation and description of the three circles and the three lines of the seven points which I mentioned above. Whoever could understand them perfectly would understand the nature of the whole firmament.[103](javascript:footNote('G600030/note103.html'))


Concerning the different sunrise and sunset in many countries:
--------------------------------------------------------------


### SOL PRIUS BABYLONI QUAM EGYPTO, ETCETERA.[104](javascript:footNote('G600030/note104.html'))


The sun rises earlier in Babylon than in Egypt and (earlier) in Egypt than in France, and, consequently, it sets earlier in Babylon than in Egypt, and earlier in Egypt than in France.[105](javascript:footNote('G600030/note105.html'))


To explain this clearly, I will place these three countries in a geometrical figure as an example of the rising and setting of the sun in the other countries of the world, but I suppose a space of six hours to be between Babylon and Egypt and between it again and France, and in the same way again between the other countries. Then I will describe a perfect circle in the form of the earth, and a circle larger than that outside it representing the orbit of the sun, and will place the letter A for Babylon and B for Egypt and C for Africa, and I will write D for the sunrise of Babylon and E for its noon and F for the sunset, and in the sameway, B for the sunrise in Egypt and F for its noon, and G for its sunset, and in the same way again, F for the sunrise of Africa and G for its noon and D for its sunset.




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Thus, I declare when the sun rises at point D, it is visible to the inhabitants of Babylon, and is concealed from the inhabitants of Egypt until it reaches point E which is noon in Babylon, and sunrise in Egypt, and midnight in Africa, for then the sun rises with reference to the Egyptians, yet it is invisible to the inhabitants of Africa[106](javascript:footNote('G600030/note106.html')) until it reaches point F, which is the end of the day in Babylon, and noon in Egypt, and sunrise in Africa, because day begins then with reference to the people of Africa, and *it is* evening with the Egyptians and midnight with the people of Babylon. The Africans behold it until it reaches point D which with them is the end of the day and is midnight in Egypt and the beginning of the day in Babylon. And midnight in Egypt and the end of the day in Africa are at one point. At another point is the beginning of the day in Egypt and midday in Babylon and midnight in Africa. In the same way, at one point is the beginning of the day in Africa, and midday in Egypt, and the end of the day in Babylon. In the same way again, at one point it is midday in Africa, and the end of the day in Egypt, and midnight at Babylon.


Thus, according to the order of God, when the sun rises in some country in the world, it sets in another, and it is the roundness of the earth that causes that difference of sunset and sunrise in the world.


Here follows the figure I promised to make:




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Concerning the size of the sun:
-------------------------------


### RATIONES GEOMETRICAE, ETCETERA[107](javascript:footNote('G600030/note107.html'))


The geometrical calculations of **Ptolemy**,[108](javascript:footNote('G600030/note108.html')) the astrologer[109](javascript:footNote('G600030/note109.html')), prove the size of the sun. He says: The size of the sun must be (either) equal to, lesser, or greater than the size of the earth; and if the sun and the earth were equal, the shadow of the earth, i.e., the darkness co-extensive with the earth itself, would travel out to the sphere of the fixed stars and obscure them, and an eclipse i.e., deficiency of light in the moon, would occur every month the year for the earth's mass, which would be as large as the mass of the body of the sun, would deprive the moon and the stars of the sun's light, and there would then never be a moon, but constant darkness from the beginning of the night until the end. Therefore, since the moon is present and the stars are seen illuminated in the night, let it be understood from this that the sun and the earth are not equal to each other.


To make it clearly understood, I will make a figure[110](javascript:footNote('G600030/note110.html')) of three circles around each other; the outer circle for the orbit of the fixed stars, the middle circle for the orbit of the sun, and the smallest circle for the orbit of the moon; and the earth in the middle, and the sun down beneath the earth in its own sphere co-extensive with the earth, and the shadow of the earth opposite the sun on the other side of the earth, and co-extensive with the earth passing out straight to the sphere of the stars.




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[111](javascript:footNote('G600030/note111.html'))SI AUTEM SOL MINORIS ESSET QUANTITATIS, ETCETERA..
--------------------------------------------------


If the size of the sun were less than that of the earth, every unpermissible insufferable thing I have mentioned and more besides, would occur, because the shadow of the earth would be constantly increasing in size and width out from the earth to the sphere of the constellations, and it would darken the greater part of them[112](javascript:footNote('G600030/note112.html')) and an eclipse of the planets would occur every month, (sic.)[113](javascript:footNote('G600030/note113.html')) and an eclipse of the moon, as I mentioned, would be in progress during the night until morning. Since, then, we have never seen this, and never heard of it, and never found it written, the size of the sun cannot be less than that of the earth. This figure below explains this statement I make.




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[114](javascript:footNote('G600030/note114.html'))NECESSARIO IGITUR FATENDUM EST..
--------------------------------


It must he admitted that the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth, and that the shadow of the earth never extends up beyond the sphere of Mercury. The shadow of the earth is conical in shape, with the base towards the earth, while it becomes narrower by degrees, until it comes to an end a little above the sphere of the moon. The same shadow obscures the moon according as it spreads over it; for when the moon is in the north or south of the shadow, it obscures the portion of the moon on which it is, and when it spreads over half of the moon, the shadow obscures it completely. However, we know, and we have found it written, that that shadow of the earth does not reach the stars nor any of the planets, but only the moon which is neighbour to the earth, and therefore all the planets, except the moon, and the stars borrow light from the sun always; and thus he[115](javascript:footNote('G600030/note115.html')) proves that the sun is much larger than the earth, as this figure below shows.


[116](javascript:footNote('G600030/note116.html'))LUNA NIHIL LUMINIS HABET NISI, ETCETERA..
-----------------------------------------


There is nothing light-giving in the moon except what it borrows from the sun, and both are spherical like the figure of a round ball; for if they were level planes, as the ignorant have asserted, when they would be in the east or west of the firmament, only the edges of them be visible, and they would be completely visible at the top of the firmament. Since they do not appear more clearly spherical in the highest point of the firmament than in any other of those places, let it be understood that they are spherical, and not flat. 


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That spherical portion which we see in each of them is only a hemisphere, i.e., half a sphere, and the other half is not visible. Thus, it is clear that the sun, moon, planets, and stars have all a spherical form, for from whatever side they are viewed, they appear round.


As I have said, the moon has no light of its own nature, and it is dark and reflective like iron which has been polished; and whatever light it has, it borrows from the sun; and its sphere is the sphere that is nearest the earth, between the heavenly bodies, and the sphere of the sun is the fourth above it. And, although they are far from each other, the moon is beneath the sun in exactly the same degree as it, then it illumines the upper part of the moon and the side near us is dark, and it is full dark moon with us. Therefore we see nothing of the moon at that time.


When the moon leaves that exact degree in which it is beneath the sun, and moves by degrees away from it eastward, then the light moves by degrees westward.


The light which the upper part of it borrows from the sun, illumines the lower edge of it, and then the moon is in its prime, i.e., with its first light turned to us, for that is the first course in which we see it; and the further eastwards it moves from the sun, the more does the light of the upper parts come round it from above, and the further eastwards it goes from the sun, the greater the increase of its light in the west, and the increase of its darkness in the east, until it reaches the 14th day, because then it is furthest from the sun, and is exactly opposite it on the other side of the earth, and then the hemisphere which is nearest the earth is completely light, and the upper hemisphere completely dark. Thus, it is never without its dark half and its light half, whatever course it takes.


When the moon inclines westwards from the diameter of the sun, i.e., from the straight line in which it is, to the other side of the earth opposite the sun, the light of the moon beside us moves upwards by degrees, and the same area of it is darkened at its wane as has been illumined at its prime, and thus, as much of it as is illuminated ever night for fourteen nights, is darkened every night from then until the end of the month, until it is exactly beneath the sun in the same degree as it *the sun*, between it and the earth, and then the side towards us is dark and the side above light.


And to make this clearly understood, I will make a figure here below in which I will place the sun to one side of the earth—the western side—and the moon 12 degrees eastwards from it, a little over the earth, and I will make it all dark except the western edge of it which is nearest the sun, which shows it to be at its prime.




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[117](javascript:footNote('G600030/note117.html'))
I will make again another figure in which I will place the moon at the top of its own sphere at the end of the seventh day of the month, with half of it light and half dark, and I place the sun to one side of the earth—to the west side.


And I will make moreover a third figure, in which I will place the moon in the east exactly with its upper half dark and its lower half which is opposite the 


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sun and the earth, light. I will place the sun as having set at that time at one side of the earth, etc. Here yonder is the figure itself.


I will make moreover a fourth figure, and will represent the half of the moon which is nearest the earth light, and the other half dark, as the moon is on the twentieth[118](javascript:footNote('G600030/note118.html')) day of the month, and I will place it exactly in the east, and the sun exactly in the middle beneath the earth.




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p.170


After that I will make a fifth figure in which I will place the moon at the top of its own orbit in the same degree as the sun, and represent the upper half of it light and the lower dark. Here is the figure on the other page.


Concerning the cause of the eclipse of the moon:
------------------------------------------------


### POSTQUAM ARGUMENTIS, ETCETERA.[119](javascript:footNote('G600030/note119.html')).


Having proved by forcible arguments and geometrical figures that it is from the sun that the moon and all the stars receive light, we shall now show whence comes the natural darkness upon the moon which is called an eclipse and I declare, approaching that subject, since the moon receives its light from the sun, and there is nothing else to deprive it of that light except the earth, it is the shadow of the earth, which is exactly between the sun and the moon, which envelopes the moon and deprives it of the sun's light; and that obscuration of the moon by the shadow of the earth is an eclipse. Now this would occur without fail, if every time the moon meets the head or tail of the Dragon, it were in a straight line, right opposite to the sun and the earth; it then would penetrate the shadow of the earth, and be totally obscured[120](javascript:footNote('G600030/note120.html')). When the 


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moon advances to the south or north of that shadow, it avoids the total eclipse, and on whatever side it meets that shadow, the portion of it which is beneath that shadow is eclipsed.


Therefore, there are two kinds of eclipse, i.e., eclipsis
universalis, i.e., a general eclipse, and eclipsis particularis, i.e., a partial eclipse. Wherefore it does not begin at the same time in every place, and is not of equal size in every place, since it is not of the same size in the east as in the west, and neither is it the same in the south of the world as in the north. On that account it *the eclipse* does not appear the same to people in the countries of the world, and they on whom day rises do not behold it, though it is present naturally at that time. Afterwards, I will speak of the eclipse of the sun in its own place.


The eclipse of the other planets: One of the planets themselves is the cause of the eclipse of the others, for the lower planet obscures the higher. In the same way, the moon obscures them all, each at its own time. To explain better what I have said of eclipses, I will make a geometrical figure here below, from which the, eclipse will be clearly understood.




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[121](javascript:footNote('G600030/note121.html'))MANIFESTUM EST, ETCETERA..
--------------------------


It is evident as I have stated, that the light of all the stars comes from the sun[122](javascript:footNote('G600030/note122.html')), and that they are round like a ball, like the sun and moon, and the reason why their roundness is not evident as is the roundness of those other two, is because they are all above the sun, far from us, except Venus and Mercury; and half of each star which is above the sun is illumined by it *the sun* at whatever point of their own orbit these stars are; i.e., whether they are in the same degree as the sun or whether they are far from it, or near to it, or in front of it, or behind it, from it they all receive light. Every time any of these planets, that are above the sun, are directly in front of it, then their light is most prodigious in front of the earth for two reasons. The first reason: A person who is in darkness thinks the light he sees outside the darkness more brilliant than a person who is in the light itself, and accordingly the person who is in the thick dark shadow of the earth at night, as he beholds the planets that are directly in front of the sun, considers the light prodigious on account of the intense darkness which surrounds him.


Another reason is that whenever any of the planets is placed directly opposite the sun, it behoves it to turn back on its circuit, and its light is all the greater in consequence of that retrogression, for it is thereby nearer to the earth; and this never happens except in the planets which are above the sun.[123](javascript:footNote('G600030/note123.html'))


The planets that are beneath the sun, i.e., Mercury and Venus, never arrive opposite the sun, and are never in the quadrate aspect. Not thus are they, but near it always, before or behind it, and the nearer they are to the sun, the less is their light, and the further they are from it the greater the light.


The light, however, of the planets that pass opposite the sun, is always increasing by degrees, until they reach the place beyond which they cannot go, and where they must turn towards the sun again, and during that retrograde motion, their light is on the decrease until they are in the same direction as the sun, beneath it, then the half of them nearest the sun is light and the other half dark, as I said in reference to the moon, when it is in line with the sun; for it is never visible except when it is at least fourteen degrees to one side of the sun, i.e., at its prime, or at its extreme wane.




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Those planets[124](javascript:footNote('G600030/note124.html')) are also after the same manner; for when they are to the east, twelve degrees in front of the sun turning towards the sun, or when they are in motion twelve degrees to the west of the sun they appear horned[125](javascript:footNote('G600030/note125.html')), after the manner of the new moon, and when they come away from the sun, as they cannot advance further, they have their full light, although that change is not evident to us as is the change of the light of the moon, as they are much further from us than the moon. Therefore, when their light is great, their bulk is small on account of their distance from us. When they are nearest the earth, the beam that comes from them appears now long, now short, and now quadrangular, according to the shape of their body. When they are furthest from the earth, not thus does the same beam appear but round, as is fire distant from you; whatever shape the flame naturally has, narrow or long or broad or short, not so does it appear when far from you, but round[126](javascript:footNote('G600030/note126.html')).


Here below is the figure that will clearly show how the sun illumines all the stars, as well as the planets; and the meaning of this figure shows there is the furthest distance they can go from the sun, i.e., in no place in the universe that is not brightened and illuminated by the sun.


I will make again another figure to show how Venus and Mercury, which are beneath the sun, are illumined by it, and how they come into the same degree as the sun, as near as they can go to it.




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p.174


I will make again the third figure here to explain better than this, how Venus and Mercury are illumined by the sun, and I will place them in the east of its orbit above the earth, so that they cannot go a greater distance from the sun than they are in front of it at dawn.




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p.175


Now I will make the fourth figure to demonstrate better how they obtain their light, and I will place them on the western side of the sphere above the earth, as far as they can go from the sun; in the position in which they are being followed at every time[127](javascript:footNote('G600030/note127.html')).


[128](javascript:footNote('G600030/note128.html'))DICO QUOD LUNA SOLI CAUSAM ECLIPSIS, ETCETERA..
-----------------------------------------------


I declare that the moon is the cause of the eclipse of the sun, because its sphere is the lowest of the heavenly spheres, and the sphere of the sun is the fourth sphere above that, and, accordingly, every course it makes is beneath the sun. When it arrives at the head or the tail of the Dragon, in exactly the same degree as the sun, without inclining to the south or to the north, it deprives us of the light of the sun, and that darkness is an eclipse. When, however, it *the moon* inclines to its right or left side, and does not move exactly in the head or in the tail of the Dragon beneath the sun in the same degree as it, it avoids producing an eclipse. That darkness which is seen on the sun, when there is an eclipse, is the body of the moon. Therefore, it is evident that an eclipse never occurs, except when the moon is exactly beneath the sun in the same degree as it. It always begins to the west side of the sun and finishes in the east. When the moon moves outside that exact degree of the 


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sun, it sometimes obscures a portion of the sun from us. Therefore, an eclipse of the sun is of two kinds as is an eclipse of the moon, i.e., total and partial[129](javascript:footNote('G600030/note129.html')).


The eclipse varies in various lands, for when there is an eclipse,
it is not visible to the same extent in every land, for there is one
land in which it is visible, and another in which it is not, and one
land in which it is more visible, and another in which it is less
visible; in this wise — If the sun were in the straight line up over our heads and the moon in the same line beneath it, it would necessitate an eclipse for us. If a person were at the same time in the east of the world, looking at the sun, he would imagine he saw it in the west of the world, and if there was another person at the same time in the west of the world beholding the sun, he would imagine he saw it in the east of the world, but neither of them see the eclipse of the sun because the sight of each would pass exactly between the sun and the moon, and, consequently, the moon, or any dark body, even though it were in the straight line beneath the sun would not deprive them of the sun's light, because of their distance from that line. At the location in which the sun is thus obscured, the stars are visible in the daytime, so great is the extent of the darkness.


An eclipse of the sun is of shorter duration than an eclipse of the moon on account of the rapidity with which each passes the other, but not so is an eclipse of the moon, which is caused by the earth. There is nothing interfering with it but the course of the moon above whilst the earth is stationary.


If anyone opposed me in this by saying that the moon is not the cause of the eclipse of the sun, and that if it were as I said, would it not also be fitting for it to be eclipsed by Venus and Mercury when they are in the straight line beneath the sun, I answer him thus: When Venus and Mercury are beneath the sun in the same direction as it, they are (as always) far away (from us) and (hence) in that position, they are much less than the sun in (apparent) size and breadth.[130](javascript:footNote('G600030/note130.html'))


The same thing often happens to the moon, for it is often beneath the sun in the same direction as it, while it is far from being as broad as it.[131](javascript:footNote('G600030/note131.html'))




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In the same way an eclipse of the sun is not caused by the stars of less magnitude than the moon, which are nearer to it, because, when a small body is placed under a large body near it, the nearer it is to it, the less of it it conceals, and when it is placed far away from the large body, and near the sight which is looking at both, the further it recedes from the large body, and the nearer it approaches the sight, the more does it conceal the large body; so that in this manner a wild apple would conceal the body of the sun from the sight.


To explain this, I will make a figure[132](javascript:footNote('G600030/note132.html')) here below in which I will make a large circle, like the orbit of the sun, and will place the sun up at the top of it, and make another circle inside that like the orbit of the moon, and place the moon itself up at the top of it in the straight line under the sun, and I will make the third circle inside that in the form of the earth and place the letter E in the centre of it and assume it to be the point in the earth whence men behold the sun, and put A in the east and B in the west of the sphere of the sun, and place the human sight in the straight line from E and from A and from B towards the sun.


Therefore the people in E see the eclipse of the sun clearly, and the same company that are in A and B see the sun clearly without an eclipse because the moon is too small compared to the sun. It does not conceal the sun from them, and consequently, on account of their distance from the sun their sight passes easily above the moon towards the sun.




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[133](javascript:footNote('G600030/note133.html'))LUNA NON VIDETUR PRIUSQUAM, ETCETERA..
--------------------------------------


The moon is never visible, until it is twelve degrees from the sun, because the brightness of the light of the sun prevents us seeing it. And it is twelve degrees from the sun when it appears facing us in the beginning and then it is at its prime[134](javascript:footNote('G600030/note134.html')) i.e., at its first light. And the sun sets in regard to the inhabitants of the east of the world when the moon is eleven degrees from it before it is seen, while to the inhabitants of the west of the world it is shining clearly, when the moon is twelve degrees or more from the sun. Therefore the inhabitants of the west of the world see the moon sooner than the inhabitants of the east by one day. Consequently, when the moon is twelve or thirteen degrees from the sun, or a little more, the visible size of it is small, and when it is from eighteen to twenty-three degrees from the sun, then its size is greatest.[135](javascript:footNote('G600030/note135.html'))


The characteristic of the light of the moon and of the constellations:
----------------------------------------------------------------------


### DICO QUOD LUNA AC SIDERA, ETCETERA[136](javascript:footNote('G600030/note136.html'))..


I declare that the moon and the stars appear within the same time and season, bright in one country, and dark in another. The reason why the people of one country see them with their light, is because the night is on their side at the same time. The daylight prevents the people of the other country from seeing them, yet it is not the daylight that causes that, but the weakness of men's sight. Thus the moon and the stars are concealed from the country in which the sun is visible during that period, and when it *the sun* is concealed, it renders them visible. And thus is fire and every other light-giving object; though they are far from you at night their light is prodigious and though they were near you in the day their light is not great. Then if you mean to see the stars by day, go in the morning or evening into a dark deep pit, and look up, 


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and you will see them clearly over your head at the top of the firmament. Also you will see them clearly at the time of an eclipse of the sun[137](javascript:footNote('G600030/note137.html')).


Now I will describe a circle for the orbit of the fixed stars in which I will place a diagram of many of the great stars. Inside of it, I will make another sphere for the sphere of the sun, in which I will place the sun itself, and inside of that I will make another sphere for the sphere of the moon, in which I will place the moon itself at the end of the thirtieth day from the beginning of the month. I will make a fourth sphere within these, and write I in the centre of it, and A in the east of it, and B at the top of it, and C in the west of it, and D at the bottom of it, and let four cities be represented by the four small circles on the orbit of the earth and four letters which mark these four cities; E the eastern city and F the upper one, and G the western city, and H the lower one; and thus when the sun sets, its light leaves city F and the beginning of night approaches it, then it is midnight in the city E, and at that time the inhabitants of the other city behold the stars with their full light and the moon rising in the east, half illuminated, and when the moon reaches city H it is then at the top of the firmament, and when the sun rises in the east of that city the inhabitants of the city cannot see the moon or the stars. When the sun arrives over city G, it is at the top of its orbit, and then it is mid-day, and the moon is there in the western half of the world over city H, and the stars do not show their light to the inhabitants of city G[138](javascript:footNote('G600030/note138.html')).




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[139](javascript:footNote('G600030/note139.html'))27. CONSTAT QUOD QUATUOR SPHAERAE LUNAE, ET CETERA..
----------------------------------------------------


The learned relate that the moon has four spheres. The first of them is called the ‘Great Sphere’, [140](javascript:footNote('G600030/note140.html')) and with its own excessive speed, it carries the moon with it, making one revolution in a day and night around the world, and causes it to rise in the east and sets in the west in that course.


If this great sphere did not move the moon one course from the east of the world to the west in a day and a night, as I mentioned, the moon would be visible every day and every night without concealment from the time it would be at its prime in the west moving gradually eastward, until at last it would be in the middle of the month eastward, in the east of the world. At the setting then, it would be concealed by day and by night, until it would rise again in the west at its prime at the beginning of the next month. Thus the revolution of the great sphere I have mentioned, carries the moon with it during the day and night, from the east of the world to the west, but the direct motion of the moon itself is from the west of the world to the east. It is clear that this is so, for when the moon is at its prime in the west, we see it every night moving gradually eastwards, until it arrives at the east of the world, and this is the motion that is most natural and appropriate to it, for this is the motion of the sphere in which it itself is fixed, while that other motion which moves it from the east to the west of the world in a day and a night is only a forced unnatural one.


The second sphere of the moon is called "the sphere like the sphere of the signs."[141](javascript:footNote('G600030/note141.html')) When it is in this sphere, it is visible going into the signs and out of them for when it advances towards the southern signs, it swerves from them yet it never leaves the course of the sphere of the signs.


The third sphere of the moon is called "the eccentric sphere,"[142](javascript:footNote('G600030/note142.html')) and portion of this is near the earth, and the other portion is very far distant from it, and on that account the moon in that sphere is at one time near the earth, and at another far from it; and the motion of that sphere is from the west to the east of the world.


In the body of that sphere is another small sphere, called "the sphere which revolves downwards to the moon,"[143](javascript:footNote('G600030/note143.html')) and the sphere of the moon is firm and immovable in that sphere like a nail in a board[144](javascript:footNote('G600030/note144.html')). This little sphere, which is 


---

p.181




within that sphere in which the moon is fixed, moves eastwards, and when the moon reaches the top of the aforementioned sphere, it accelerates its course; and when it is at the bottom of it, it relaxes the same course and when it relaxes, it performs something of a backward revolution westwards as the other planets do, although that revolution is not evident, as is the revolution of the planets. On account of the great swiftness of the eccentric sphere in turning the moon with it, that turning prevents the backward revolution of the moon being visible. Now I will make a figure showing those four spheres.


[145](javascript:footNote('G600030/note145.html'))




---

p.182


Concerning the spheres of the sun.
----------------------------------


### DICO QUOD SOLI BINAE SPHAERAE, ETCETERA[146](javascript:footNote('G600030/note146.html'))..


I declare that the sun has two spheres. The first in accordance with the very great sphere[147](javascript:footNote('G600030/note147.html')), which moves westwards, and advances from the east to the west of the world. If the motion of that sphere did not check the sun, it would be six full months journeying from the west to the east of the world above the earth without setting. It would be an equal length of time moving from the east to the west of the world invisible, and thus half of the year would be one day and the other half night.


The second sphere of the sun, called "the eccentric sphere,"[148](javascript:footNote('G600030/note148.html')) is like that of the moon. The motion of this sphere is from the west to the east of the world, and this sphere containing the sun within it is near the earth on one side, and distant from it on the other side. When the sun is near the earth[149](javascript:footNote('G600030/note149.html')) in that sphere it parches the southern portion of the earth greatly, so that that land is uninhabitable; and when it is furthest from the earth in the same sphere, its heat does not reach the earth, and a corresponding portion of the northern part of the earth is uninhabitable[150](javascript:footNote('G600030/note150.html')) from excessive cold.


Now I will make a figure to show how those two orbits of the sun are within each other.




---

p.183


Concerning the order of the ten spheres.
----------------------------------------


### SICUT DICIT **PTOLEMAEUS**[151](javascript:footNote('G600030/note151.html'))


As that philosopher[152](javascript:footNote('G600030/note152.html')) says, we see two kinds of motion in the firmament—one motion from east to west and the other from west to east of the world. *The motion of* the sun, moon and each of the other five planets corresponds to the extent of the amplitude of their own spheres in the eastward motion. The westward motion moreover carries the planets with it in a contrary direction, in opposition to their natural motion which is eastward. I repeat that the sun moon, and other five planets and all the fixed stars have the same equal motion,[153](javascript:footNote('G600030/note153.html')) for of them all individually, there is no star which moves more swiftly or more slowly than the other. Therefore, there is no difference in the world between the motion of the sun and moon, and the motion of the other stars, because it is certain that they have the same nature and form. Although Saturn appears to be slower than the moon in consequence of the reason I shall now relate, their motion is equal.


As **Ptolemy** and the other philosophers declare, there are ten large spheres,[154](javascript:footNote('G600030/note154.html')) and the largest sphere of those, which is called the Very Great Sphere, possesses the same motion as the Sphere of the Signs, since both move westward. The motion of the eight spheres moreover, i.e., the sphere of the fixed stars and *that* of the sun and of the moon and of the other five planets, is from the west to the east of the world, as I have frequently remarked, and those spheres are situated within each other; and the sphere of the moon is the nearest to the earth, and then the spheres of Mercury and Venus respectively, and that of the sun outside those, and the spheres of Mars and Jupiter outside those, and the sphere of the fixed stars outside those. It is not because, they do not move that they are called fixed stars, for they move from the west of the world to the east, as do the other planets, but because they do not incline from the north of the firmament[155](javascript:footNote('G600030/note155.html')) to the south, as do those others. The Sphere of the Signs is the ninth sphere, and outside those one and all is the tenth sphere called the "very great sphere", or by another name, "the direct (or right) sphere."[156](javascript:footNote('G600030/note156.html')) Herewith is a figure[157](javascript:footNote('G600030/note157.html')) which represents them all.


I said above that the moon appears swifter than Saturn. If the moon were in the orbit of Saturn, it would be thirty years travelling as Saturn travels[158](javascript:footNote('G600030/note158.html')). Similarly Saturn would traverse the orbit of the moon, if it were in it, in a period of 


---

p.184




twenty-seven days, or four weeks, less a day[159](javascript:footNote('G600030/note159.html')), as it does itself[160](javascript:footNote('G600030/note160.html')). And therefore it is the narrow compass of revolution which some of them have, and the extensive circuit of others, which causes the planets in them to appear fast or slow; though they are not so, for their course and nature, their speed and slowness are quite alike. And if the sphere of Saturn were divided into three hundred and sixty equal parts, to the centre of the earth, and each part of them were formed into a circular shape, each part of them would be equal to the sphere of the moon. And if the sphere of the moon were extended so as to add to its own extent, three hundred and sixty times as much, and all that were to be put in the form of a sphere, none the less would it be equal to the sphere of Saturn[161](javascript:footNote('G600030/note161.html')). Thus it is proved that it is the narrowness and the wideness of the orbits of the planets that makes some of them appear to have a swift and some a slow movement, although as I have repeatedly stated, such is not the case.


**Ptolemy**[162](javascript:footNote('G600030/note162.html')) gave a clear example to explain the two motions I mentioned above, from east to west and from west to east of the world. Imagine that a wheel[163](javascript:footNote('G600030/note163.html')) revolved from the east of the world to the west in a day and a night, and that there was a small circle around the centre of that wheel, and a circle twice as large outside it, and a third circle outside that three times as large as the first circle, the fourth circle outside of that four times larger than the first circle, and so on up to the eighth circle. And if a ball[164](javascript:footNote('G600030/note164.html')) were in each and every circle of them, moving from the west of the world to the east (with equal linear velocities), then this wheel would represent the very great sphere of the world and the small circles I mentioned would be like the inner circles of that great sphere. Now, when the first ball completes its first revolution, the second ball will be on the second half of its round, and the third ball on the third part, and the fourth ball on the fourth and the fifth on the fifth, and the sixth on the sixth, and the seventh on the seventh, and the eighth on the eighth[165](javascript:footNote('G600030/note165.html')). Thus while the eighth ball would have traversed its whole course the first ball would have made eight revolutions. Whilst those eight balls would be fulfilling their circular course, the wheel would revolve very frequently between those 


---

p.185




revolutions from the east to the west of the world and those eight balls would very often begin their own travelling around[166](javascript:footNote('G600030/note166.html')).


And to enlighten the mind of the reader I have set down this diagram.


![to face p. 118](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face118.gif)




---

p.186


[167](javascript:footNote('G600030/note167.html'))SCIENDUM EST QUIA MAXIMA SPHAERA, ET CETERA..
---------------------------------------------


Be it known unto you that the very great sphere[168](javascript:footNote('G600030/note168.html')) is the straight sphere. Ill-informed persons have given many erroneous opinions concerning it, for they declared that, since it is the highest and loftiest and swiftest of the spheres, it is the origin of the universe. It completes its course in a day and a night, and contains in itself three hundred and sixty degrees of the Zodiac, and the sphere of the fixed stars moves in a contrary direction to this from the west of the world to the east and is one hundred years travelling one degree[169](javascript:footNote('G600030/note169.html')). Each of the spheres of the planets completes its course according to its narrowness or wideness.


Moreover, the very great sphere, which surrounds all the other spheres on every side, controls them and causes them to revolve from the east of the world to the west; and this is the cause of night and day, light and darkness, and of the changes of the seasons, of spring and summer, autumn and winter.


Inside of this sphere everything is protected and controlled and set in motion, lest at anytime they might change their state or position or order, and this causes the planets to revolve so easily while the earth is immovable. For, if the earth were movable, day or night could not preserve their own course, as they do now, and the course of the planets and spheres of the firmament could not be determined, as they now are. There are no stars in that sphere. The ill-informed have said that it has life and that everything receives life from it; but I declare however that great its powers over everything I have mentioned, that it receives these powers from its own creator. As a proof that it is so—it is not known what work anybody performs until it has taken effect. Then, since we know every action that is effected by the very great sphere before it has been performed, those actions are performed by some other being, and are not of itself[170](javascript:footNote('G600030/note170.html')).




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p.187


[171](javascript:footNote('G600030/note171.html'))SECUNDA SPHAERA POST MAXIMAM SPHAERAM ETCETERA.
-----------------------------------------------


The Zodiac, i.e., the Sphere of the Signs[172](javascript:footNote('G600030/note172.html')), is the second sphere after the very great sphere, and is nearer the earth than the latter, and *the Zodiac* is also without stars, as I mentioned that the very great sphere was, and it moves from the east to the west of the world like the latter. The ancients imagined that there are nine spheres in all, and that it *the Zodiac* is one of the orbits of the very great sphere. **Ptolemy** refutes this theory in his own book, and says that he found a great difference between the very great sphere and the Zodiac as regards its zones and poles, for he found the north pole in the Zodiac twenty-four degrees higher than the same pole in the very great sphere, and he found the south pole of the Zodiac another twenty-four degrees under the same pole in the great sphere[173](javascript:footNote('G600030/note173.html')). And the zones of this sphere are twenty-four degrees from each other in the top of the firmament[174](javascript:footNote('G600030/note174.html')). Therefore **Ptolemy** establishes ten spheres, and we refer to the ninth sphere when we say that the sun, or moon, or other planet is in a certain degree in the signs of that sphere.


The reason that these names; Aries, Taurus, Leo, etc., are applied to the signs of the Zodiac is because the constellations in the sphere of the stars opposite that portion of the Zodiac which is called Aries or Taurus correspond in shape and nature to the same animals we have here *below*; but there is no figure at all in the Zodiac, because as I have stated, there is no star in it.


The philosophers divided the Zodiac into twelve parts, and called each part a sign, according to the name or shape of the thing which is beneath that sign in the straight line in the sphere of the stars. Similarly, they divided the year into twelve parts according to those twelve signs of the sun, and called the course of the sun in each of the signs a "month".


And the philosophers taught that the change of season occurs according to the course of the sun from sign to sign, and according to elevation or depression, for when the sun enters the first point of Aries[175](javascript:footNote('G600030/note175.html')) an equinox occurs, i.e., equality of day and night, and then spring begins and does not depart until the sun is in *the last point of* Gemini; and when the sun enters Cancer, that is the beginning of summer. When it is there at the highest point of its sphere above, the sun heats the surface of the earth to a great extent, and when it arrives at 


---

p.188




the last point of Virgo, it brings the summer to an end. When it arrives at the last point of Libra, the second equinox occurs, and then autumn begins and does not depart until the sun is at the last point of Sagitarius. When it is in the last point of Capricorn, winter begins and continues until it is in the last point of Aries again, and then the spring begins again.


The reason that one winter is colder than another, and a winter wetter than another, and a winter drier than another and one summer hotter, and another drier than another, is because the sun is the cause of spring, summer, autumn and winter, and the other planets cause the same seasons[176](javascript:footNote('G600030/note176.html')).


When the summer of the sun occurs, and the other planets are in the sign of their own winter, there is a great deal of rain and cold in the summer; and when the winter of the sun occurs, and the other planets are in the signs which show their own summer, there is wind and little rain and cold in that winter especially. And similarly as regards the other seasons. The heat and cold, dryness and wetness of the four seasons of the year depend upon the movements of the planets in the signs of the Zodiac, as the Blessed Creator himself has ordained them[177](javascript:footNote('G600030/note177.html')).


[178](javascript:footNote('G600030/note178.html'))DICO QUOD SATURNUS PER QUATUOR ETCETERA..
-----------------------------------------


I declare, since Saturn has four motions, that it has four spheres in which it moves. The first motion *that of* the very great sphere from the east of the world to the west; the second motion, its own natural motion from the west of the world to the east, the third motion[179](javascript:footNote('G600030/note179.html')), the motion of the sphere in which it itself is fixed, and in which it moves in a direct line, or backwards, swiftly or slowly; the fourth motion, the motion of the eccentric sphere, and it is in that motion (lit. on that sphere) every planet is raised as high as possible from the earth, and is lowered as near as possible to the earth; and these are the four motions that all the planets have, except the sun, which has two spheres and two motions.


I will again describe those four spheres together with their motions themselves; and first I will make a figure of the very great sphere, and the figure of the earth in the middle of it, and I will place A in the east of it and B at the top of it and C in the west of it and D at the bottom of it, and thus is the motion of the very great sphere from A to B, from B to C, from C to D, and from D to A.




---

p.189


I make a figure (Fig 26) of the second sphere, which moves from the west of the world to the east, and which is under the very great sphere, and in the direct line beneath the Zodiac; and the Zodiac is situated obliquely, and the very great sphere is directly over our heads, because, as I mentioned, their poles and their pivot are far apart.




---

p.190


I will make a figure (fig 27) of the third sphere[180](javascript:footNote('G600030/note180.html'))150, the eccentric sphere, inside the two preceding spheres. The centre of this sphere is south of the centre of the earth by two and a half degrees, according to the measurement of the diameter of the sphere, and is divided into one hundred and twenty parts;[181](javascript:footNote('G600030/note181.html')) and this sphere is near the earth on one side, and distant from it on another.


I will make a figure (fig 28) of the fourth sphere[182](javascript:footNote('G600030/note182.html')) which confines firmly the body of the planet within itself, inside of the other three spheres.




---

p.192


The centre of that planet[183](javascript:footNote('G600030/note183.html')) forms the centre of that sphere in which it is, and it moves from the west to the east of the world; and at the top of the eccentric sphere is the centre of those planets like a firm immovable nail in a sphere. It is not a straight course like that of an arrow that the planets have, but a circular natural course like that of a cartwheel, moving from the west of the world to the east, and if there was a nail in the upper rim of the cart *wheel*[184](javascript:footNote('G600030/note184.html'))moving from the west of the world to the east, whilst the nail would move downwards towards the earth, it would not move westwards or eastwards, and when it would reach the earth, it would incline its course from east to west; and when it would rise up from the earth it would not move westwards or eastwards, but when it would reach the extreme top, then it would move eastwards; and this is what causes the planets to perform a forward course at one time and a backward course at another, and a swift course at one time and a slow one at another.


[185](javascript:footNote('G600030/note185.html'))POSTQUAM SATURNI SPHAERA MOTUS, ETCETERA..
------------------------------------------


Having spoken of the sphere and motion of Saturn and the other planets, I shall now tell how they turn backwards, which is called retrogressio, i.e., a back-turning, i.e., when the planet turns back from Aries to Pisces[186](javascript:footNote('G600030/note186.html')).


To explain that, I will make a figure of the two spheres of Saturn, and outside of them I will place the sphere of the signs and divide it into twelve parts, and then inside of it I will place the eccentric[187](javascript:footNote('G600030/note187.html')) sphere of Saturn, and above at the top of it I will place the sphere in which the body of the planet is fixed[188](javascript:footNote('G600030/note188.html')), and then I will place the earth in its own position with E in the middle of it and Saturn in four small circles around its own circumference. I will place the first of those small circles at the top of its own circle and a line through it between Aries and Pisces; the second circle in the first stopping place, with B in the middle of it; the third circle in the place where it turns back, with C in the middle of it; the fourth circle in the second stopping place with D in the middle of it, and I will draw three lines from the centre of the earth up through Saturn to the figure of the signs which are in the sphere of the fixed stars. Those lines represent the sight of the eyes up from the earth towards Saturn, and I will draw the vertical line up from the earth towards A, and thus when
 


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p.193




Saturn is in position A, it is in the beginning of Aries in the Zodiac, and its motion is eastwards full and direct, and when it has moved thus eastwards some degrees in Aries it inclines towards B, and when it arrives there it moves neither to the east nor west, and, therefore, that is its first halt, and when it departs from that position it moves back to D, and that is the place of its retrogression, and there it has a full direct motion from the east of the world to the west; and as it moves westwards, when it reaches position C, that is its second halting place, because there it moves neither to the east or the west. Whosoever would then look up from the middle of the earth he would find then in Pisces the same Saturn which was previously in Aries, and on its leaving D in the east it will mount by degrees again to A. That is the reason why the planets appear larger at one time than at another, because, as they make a retrogressive motion towards the earth, they appear at their largest.


![to face p. 130](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/images/Astro/face130.gif)


All that I have said concerning spheres and motions and every other quality which Saturn possesses, ought to be understood with regard to Jupiter and Mars, since there is no difference between them in their course, or in their motion, or in their actions. The three planets that are above the sun, experience the same things, although they are not evident from the moon on account of the excessive speed of its eccentric sphere, because the sphere which holds the moon firmly moves eastwards, and when it turns on its backward course it moves westwards, and, therefore, that revolution is not evident although its other course and its halting are evident, because one day it moves twelve degrees and another it moves fourteen degrees[189](javascript:footNote('G600030/note189.html')).


Concerning the sphere of the fixed stars.
-----------------------------------------


### HAEC SPHAERA OCTAVO SITUATUR IN LOCO, ETCETERA.[190](javascript:footNote('G600030/note190.html')).


This sphere is situated at the eighth place in the firmament, and is formed after the pattern of Aries and Taurus and Gemini and the other signs of the Zodiac. The stars of that sphere move, with equal speeds and at fixed distances[191](javascript:footNote('G600030/note191.html')) from each other at every season for ever and ever from the west of the world to the east, for they are not accelerated or retarded nor have they a direct course, nor a retrogressive motion like the wandering stars, and they spend a hundred years traversing one of the degrees of the great sphere[192](javascript:footNote('G600030/note192.html')).




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p.194


[193](javascript:footNote('G600030/note193.html'))[194](javascript:footNote('G600030/note194.html'))AD HAEC INDICANDA GEOMETRICA SUNT.
----------------------------------


To pursue this study, it is necessary to obtain geometrical arguments, in which we can believe without doubting. I will make then a figure of the earth, and I will place E in the centre of it, and I will describe another circle from the north of it to the south, and draw a straight line from the Arctic (Celestial) Pole to the Antarctic (Celestial) Pole through the centre and circumference of the earth, and place A at the zenith of the firmament, and B in the northern pole of the circle, and C down below it, and D in its south (celestial) pole[195](javascript:footNote('G600030/note195.html')).




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p.195


Therefore, whosoever being in position E (at the equator), should take the astrolabe in his hand—for with it will be obtained full certain knowledge of this matter—and placing his face along the middle line of the astrolabe which he holds suspended by a thread from his thumb, and beholding the Arctic (Celestial) Pole through the two holes of its two plates, would find that pole level with the earth; and if you travel three score six and two-thirds of a mile[196](javascript:footNote('G600030/note196.html')) from E to B and then place the astrolabe opposite the Arctic (Celestial) Pole, and look through it as you did before, you would find it has an elevation of one degree above the horizon[197](javascript:footNote('G600030/note197.html')) and one of the three hundred and sixty degrees of the astrolabe proves it to be so.


Again, if you move another three score six and two-third miles from
that towards B, and place the astrolabe opposite the same pole[198](javascript:footNote('G600030/note198.html')), and look as before, you will find it has an elevation of two degrees,[199](javascript:footNote('G600030/note199.html')) and so on, always, from E to B, for every three score six and two-thirds miles until one would reach B, one would find the same pole increasing in height by one degree. The amount of all those miles put together in accordance with the amount of the three hundred and sixty degrees which are in the circumference of the sphere of the earth, make 24,000 miles[200](javascript:footNote('G600030/note200.html')), which is the circumference measurement, including the water and the land of the globe. And the **alkoterra**,[201](javascript:footNote('G600030/note201.html')) i.e., the diameter of the earth's globe, is eight thousand miles[202](javascript:footNote('G600030/note202.html')), and, accordingly, it is four thousand miles to the centre of the earth, and three thousand to every thousand of these is the extent that should be therein *i.e., in the circumference*[203](javascript:footNote('G600030/note203.html')).




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p.196


[204](javascript:footNote('G600030/note204.html'))ANTIQUI LINEA AB ORIENTE AD OCCIDENTEM, ET CETERA..
---------------------------------------------------


The ancients imagined a line through the middle of the earth directly from the east of it to the west co-incidental with the equinoctial line, and they handed it down to us that that line is equidistant from the Arctic and the Antarctic Poles.


Between that line[205](javascript:footNote('G600030/note205.html')) and the Arctic Pole is the habitable part of the earth, although that entire portion is not habitable. No living thing on earth can exist from the same line to the Antarctic Pole, on account of the excessive heat. Because, since it is in the eccentric sphere that the body of the sun is borne around the earth, and since that sphere inclines towards that side, that side of the earth must necessarily be much hotter than any other, and the heat which is on that side scarcely exceeds the cold which is on the other side opposite it. Consequently, at the extreme northern portion of the earth, on account of the great distance of the sun from it, there is nothing but many dark clouds and much wind and rain, frost, snow and excessive cold. On that account that place is uninhabitable, and the part which is along the equinoctial line temperate.


The days and nights of the year are exactly of equal length in that place. The portion of the earth which is habitable extends from that line along the equinoctial as far as the uninhabitable district in the north. The ancients
 


---

p.197




divided that portion into seven parts in all, from the east of the earth to the west, as this figure demonstrates.


[206](javascript:footNote('G600030/note206.html'))


#### Concerning the nature of those lands:


From the line along the equinoctial begins the first zone as regards latitude, and extends in longitude, as I mentioned, from the east of the world to the west. And the whole day does not exceed twelve hours and two-thirds exactly twice a year, and is not shorter than eleven hours and one-third. Twice in the year the sun passes (directly) over the inhabitants of that region, i.e., when it moves from the south of the firmament to the north, and from thence to the south again; consequently, there are two summers in one year in that region. In that region, from north to south of it, the shadow never inclines.


#### The nature of the second zone:


The excessive amount of the sand of that region makes it too warm, because the heat of the sun penetrates the sand, and scorches and burns the surface of the earth; and when a high wind comes it collects the sand and forms hills and mountains from it and at another time scatters it. The inhabitants of that region 


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p.198



are black people called "Negroes,"[207](javascript:footNote('G600030/note207.html')) with curly hair. There is a great abundance of gold in that region, because the very great heat of the sun parches the surface of the earth. Not in the veins and hollows of the earth is the gold found, as are silver, tin and other metals, but on its surface. Day never exceeds thirteen hours, or is less than twelve hours in that region[208](javascript:footNote('G600030/note208.html')).


#### The nature of the third zone:


The heat of these regions is less than that of the previous one because the sun is never directly above except for a short time in the summer solstice, and that climate is more temperate than either of those I have mentioned. The inhabitants of that region are of a swarthy colour, with curly hair and slender bodies, and the trees of their country do not grow to any height, and day does not exceed fourteen hours, and neither is it ever less than ten hours in that region.


#### The nature of the fourth zone:


The climate of this region is more temperate than that of the other regions I have mentioned, because they have no excessive cold or heat, and they abound and are enriched by the variety of exotic trees and many fruits of the earth, and the inhabitants of the first and second regions can dwell in it easily and without danger. The inhabitants of that region are of a yellow colour, between white and swarthy, they are intellectual and refined, with good memories and much wisdom; and in this country the greatest number of people of great knowledge and wisdom, generosity and physical strength have been. Also the water of that country tastes better than that of the others. Day never exceed fifteen hours, nor is less than nine hours, in that region.


#### The nature of the fifth zone:


Its heat is less, and its cold greater than that of the preceding region, and yet their trees are more numerous, and the fruit of their fields more excellent. The inhabitants of that country have medium-sized bodies their complexion is neutral,[209](javascript:footNote('G600030/note209.html')) nearer to white than to swarthy, their wisdom is less and their life shorter, and they are wealthier than the people of the preceding climate. And daylight extends to sixteen hours, and diminishes to eight hours in that region.




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p.199


#### The nature of the sixth zone:


Its heat is less and its cold greater than that of the preceding regions, and the produce of its trees and fields is less than that of the preceding regions, on account of its coldness, and great is the snow and rain, and many are the clouds, wells, rivers, hills and mountains of that region. The inhabitants of that region have weak bodies, are of fair complexion, with smooth hair, while they are savage and uncouth. The longest day of that region is of seventeen hours duration, and the shortest day eight and a half[210](javascript:footNote('G600030/note210.html')).


The nature of the seventh zone is, lack of heat and excess of cold.


The inhabitants of that region are unintelligent and uncouth, with weak minds and brutish memories, and weak bodies, and smooth, fair, yellow hair; and if the inhabitants of this region went to the first or second region, or if the inhabitants of those regions came to this one, both of them would die on account of the change of climate.


Therefore, the fourth region is the most temperate, and is the best of them, all things considered, for the mildness of the heavens nurtures that region beyond all. The longest day in that region *i.e., the seventh* is eighteen hours, and the shortest six[211](javascript:footNote('G600030/note211.html')).


[212](javascript:footNote('G600030/note212.html'))DUO IN TERRE LOCA ESSE NOVIMUS, ET CETERA
-----------------------------------------


We know two places on the earth, one in the straight line under the Arctic Pole, the other in the straight line under the Antarctic Pole where the whole year is one day and one night, since six months are one day, and the other six months one night. Whosoever be at the extreme north of the earth in the place where the Arctic Pole would be, i.e., the axis of the north of the firmament in the straight line above him, would see the circle of the straight line which coincides with the circle of the signs around him, and thus would see the motion of the firmament like the motion of a quern; and thus when the sun enters the straight line in the first part of Aries, it rises in the east under the earth with reference to that place I mentioned, and causes day there, revolving around it: like a quern[213](javascript:footNote('G600030/note213.html')), and turns from east to south and from south to west, and from west to north and from north again to the east, and *the sun* continues thus constantly revolving in the same degree until it arrives at 


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Cancer. Then being in the highest degree it can possibly reach, over that place, it divides that long day into two equal parts, and from that gradually sinks until it comes to the end of the day, when it deprives the aforesaid place of its light. And thus there is day in that place, from the middle of the month of March until the middle of the month of September.


When the sun enters the first point of Libra, night begins to darken the same place, and the sun is then moving in a circuit, like a quern,[214](javascript:footNote('G600030/note214.html')) sinking gradually underneath the earth, until he enters the first point of Capricorn; beyond that it cannot sink, and then occurs the middle of that great night. At that time the sun begins to rise gradually from that place, until it enters the first point of Aries, and day begins again in the place I mentioned. Consequently, there is one long night in that place from the middle of September until the middle of March.


Similarly, whosoever would be in the south of the earth in the place where the Antarctic Pole would be, i.e., with the axis of the firmament directly overhead, would see the circle of the straight line turning like a quern overhead; and when the sun would enter the straight line in the first point of Libra, it would rise in the east under the earth with reference to a person who would be in the place that I mentioned, and day would begin with reference to him, and the sun would revolve like a quern from east to north, and from north to west, and from west to south, and the south to the east of the firmament.


Thus, it continues ever revolving without sinking, with reference to the place I mentioned, until it enters the first point of Capricorn; and when it has arrived at that highest point it can reach, it divides that long day into two parts and continues gradually sinking until it enters the last point of Pisces. It brings the day to a close then, the day which lasts from the middle of September until the middle of March. Then, when the sun enters the first point of Aries, night begins to begins darken the aforementioned place and then the sun keeps revolving and sinking gradually under the earth, until it enters the first point of Cancer, so that it cannot be lower with reference to that place, and then occurs the middle of that great night. The sun continues rising by degrees until it enters the first point of Libra, and the same long day begins again; and the night I described lasts from the middle of March until the middle of September.




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Concerning the winds; what they are, and whence they come.
----------------------------------------------------------


### ASSERUNT ANTIQUI PHILOSOPHI, ETCETERA[215](javascript:footNote('G600030/note215.html')).


Although the old philosophers say that Eurus is warm and dry, and Zephyrus warm and wet, and that Boreas is cold and dry, and Auster cold and wet, some of the doctors declare that neither Zephyrus nor Auster are so, but that Zephyrus is cold and wet, and Auster warm and wet; nor do I know whether they said so with reference to the general nature of the winds, or with reference to the nature of the winds in certain countries, since, we perceive a difference in the winds in various countries, because Eurus and Zephyrus are wet in some countries, and dry in others[216](javascript:footNote('G600030/note216.html')). However, I shall relate the generalities concerning the nature of all the winds.


When the air has been heated by the sun it expands and becoming extended, dilates, and a black dark vapour rises from the sea up into the air and is converted into a cloud above, and, when that mist comes in contact with the cold air above, it suddenly contracts, which causes it to flow and dissolve, and converts it into rain. Moreover, when that sea vapour and the air come in contact with each other above in the warm dry atmosphere, and both together are drawn up to the frost region or to the domain of cold, they there become contracted and remain in the atmosphere. It is the nature of the warm air and that of the cold region *to be* opposed to each other, and they do not endure to remain in the same place, and, consequently, the *cold* space drives out the air, and being continually expelled, it runs from place to place setting the atmosphere in motion. That motion of the air is the wind, and the greater the cause whence the motion arises, the greater the wind.


Another cause of wind: When a battle or conflict is being fought by large hosts and vast troops, with the movements and panting of the men, some of them fleeing and others in pursuit, the rarefied air flies before them, and raises wind.


If you wish to prove clearly what we have said concerning the rising of the wind into the cold air after it has been heated, take a basin and put water into it to a depth of two or three inches, and place an empty glass vessel in it, and leave it there during the night until morning in some cool place; and in the morning you will find that vessel full of cold condensed air. Turn it mouth downwards in the water which is in the basin, and place them both in some place exposed to the heat of the sun, when it has risen; and when the condensed air in the glass becomes heated, it expands and dilates, and spreads and seeks a larger space, and since it has no way of escape except through the mouth of the vessel down into the water, it goes down into the water, and lifts it up to the mouth of the basin. It appears then like the full tide, gradually 


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growing until, sometimes, it overflows the basin. It is that which proves that the air which was in the vessel we have mentioned, increases and expands. Leave it so again until the following night, and as the heat of the day departs, and the cold of the night comes, that cold will collect the air that was in the vessel into the same vessel again, and will condense it there and the water will subside into its own place again. Now, since this small volume of air has expanded so much, it is certain that the entire air, or a part of it, increases greatly in its own sphere.


Concerning the clouds, thunder, rain and lightning.
---------------------------------------------------


### SOL *CURRIT SUPER* MARIA ET FLUMINA ET LOCA, ETCETERA[217](javascript:footNote('G600030/note217.html')).


The sun draws from the sea and from rivers and other wet places, vapours and mists which, owing to their thinness, are invisible except in the morning and evening. And when they are drawn up into the hot air, they are scattered and spread and mingled with the air, since they are of the same nature. On the other hand, when are drawn up into the cold air, they become compressed and contracted within themselves and they are converted into clouds, and since it is the nature of like things to approach each other, as the rivers enter the sea so do the lesser of these clouds approach the larger clouds since they are lighter and can move more readily. And they become one large dark mass, and since that mass is warm by nature, and the cold air surrounds it, they are opposed, and contend with each other.


When the air is the stronger, and overcomes the cloud, it binds and condenses its borders, and converts it into snow. Consequently, when the heat is inside in the cloud, and it is surrounded by the cold without, with the cloud freezing and hardening around it, it would seek, according to its nature, a place where it could extend and dilate and spread; and since the dense cloud does not suffer it to do so, the heat shakes it powerfully, and it (the cloud) breaks, and a great and terrible sound, called thunder, results from that breaking, and with the strength of the force by which that rupture is caused, thunder-bolts and lightning result from that rupture, and small fragments of that cloud fall, striking and breaking against each other. As they descend, they break each other again into small pieces, and when they come in contact with the part of the atmosphere nearest the earth, the heat of that place removes their jagged points, and renders them spherical, and the hailstones fall, and the small drops of rain that mingle with the snow come from the part which it loses as it melts.


The greater the above mentioned heat and cold, the greater the opposition between them, and as the opposition is increased, the thunder and lightning which results front them is increased. The part of the cloud which does not fall to the earth spreads throughout the atmosphere, and is converted into 


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lightning. The part of the lightning which comes to earth splits hills and mountains, and penetrating the earth, kills men and cattle.


As a proof that thunder results from the contrariety I mentioned, the philosophers have cited an example: When a green leaf is put upon fire, before it burns, when the heat comes in contact with it, it breaks with a sound. In the same way, when red *hot* iron is put into water, the contrariety of these two things draws a tremendous noise from them. Then since the contrariety of small bodies produces this noise, large bodies ought to produce a great noise.


There are more thunder, lightning and thunderbolts in spring and autumn, than in the other seasons, because these two seasons occur between the warm summer and the cold winter. The cloud which the blowing of the wind draws up from the earth into the cold, wet, thin attenuated air, without heat or dryness, except what is contained in the clouds themselves, possess no contrariety.


The heavy part which is contained in those clouds separates from them in drops, and is converted into rain, and when the cloud meets the warm air, it (the air) rarefies it and converts it back into air, and through the disagreement due to the contrariety of the heat and cold, dryness and wetness of that air, it is changed into large black clouds, and those black clouds are changed into heavy rain; and sometimes the same substance is converted into large drops of rain and great hailstones, which occur most frequently in spring and autumn. And when they occur in the summer, on account of that season possessing so much of the contrariety I mentioned, compared to the other seasons, the tempest is greater then. When a great wind accompanies that tempest, it gathers the clouds together up in the sky, and binds them, and makes them assume different shapes, and ill-informed people think that they are dragons. We perceive the dust of the earth being whirled around by the wind in the same way.


Although the thunder and lightning are produced simultaneously, the lightning is seen before the thunder is heard.[218](javascript:footNote('G600030/note218.html')) The reason of that is that the eye sees what is near it and is distant from it in the same way, for it does not perceive the earth any sooner than it does the stars that are most distant from it in the firmament. That is not the case with the hearing, for one hears the sound that is near sooner than the sound which is distant; and in explaining that, the doctors compared the sense of hearing to a quern, for if there were an ear in the opening of the quern, it would hear everything near to it and distant from it indiscriminately, because the sense hearing is like air, which is a thin, subtle body, the motion of which is greater, smoother, and swifter than that of water.


When some disruption, or striking, or other noise occurs in the air, the air which is nearest that noise propels the sound away from it, towards the other parts of the air, until finally it enters the ear, and passes from the ear to the 


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brain, which distinguishes between the greatest and the least, and between the gentlest and the loudest noise.


In the same way, they compared the sense of sight to a trumpet which has a narrow end, and the further from the end it is the broader it becomes, and thus the sight of the eye passes through the tubular vein from the brain to the pupils of the eyes, and there has a narrow end like a trumpet, and it widens out until it meets the object which it beholds, and turns in again, carrying the shape form, and colour of that object with it to the brain.


Concerning animate, growing objects, destitute of sensation.
------------------------------------------------------------


### UNIVERSA ANIMATA INSENSIBILIA, ETCETERA[219](javascript:footNote('G600030/note219.html')).


Every thing which has life, and is destitute of sensation, can grow of itself, for we perceive many kinds of trees on which fruit grows of itself in the woods and hills, although the fruit of trees which human hands plant is more carefully and better cultivated than they. No tree in the world can grow except in its own natural place and climate. It is the seed of objects which have vegetable life and are without sensation, which gives them material generation because God, who made them, desired that they should contain the power of propagation whence would grow for ever in succession their own like corresponding kind; and thus when that seed falls to the earth, it becomes swollen from the wet rain falling upon it.


It is the nature of water to penetrate every body, except an impenetrable one, and the sun having heated that seed, draws its moisture out of it, because it is the nature of the sun to draw up every moisture, and then there grows from that grain, after its being heated and moistened, the natural growth which was, contained in its hidden powers within it, i.e., the germ of a plant like unto the plant from which it originally sprang; and the earth is ever supplying it with moisture in place of the moisture which the sun draws from it, and then a force is generated from those two things[220](javascript:footNote('G600030/note220.html')) called ‘vegetative life’[221](javascript:footNote('G600030/note221.html')), and veins grow down out of it, *the plant* called roots, through which it draws to itself the nutriment of the soil. When the sun draws *up* this moisture, it draws with it the hidden force, and from it are created boughs, foliage, blossoms and fruit, and it continues ever thus growing, until it ceases to grow, and the fruit which is upon it is its seed, and is the germ of a similar plant again.


There are three kinds of growing things *i.e., plants*: some of them lose their foliage in winter and it comes on them again in summer. The second kind, which does not lose its foliage, either in winter or summer. The third kind 


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dies, except for one thing, in winter, and from that seed a similar one grows in summer. The great master of philosophers, i.e., Aristotle, says that objects with growth and devoid of sensation are of three kinds—[*...*] 
[222](javascript:footNote('G600030/note222.html'))


Appendix 1
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### The Irish Astronomical Tract: A revised English Translation


Two complete English translations of the Tract have been made to date. The first was undertaken by John J O'Farrelly in 1893. A hand written copy and a typed copy are in the archives of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. O'Farrelly had considerable technical advice from **Maxwell Close**, at that time Treasurer of the Academy. **Close**'s knowledge of the history of astronomy was thorough and his assistance would have been substantial. The typed copy in the Academy Library carries with it **Close**'s handwritten commentary on the blank facing pages. The commentary was completed in 1901. Neither the translation nor the accompanying commentary has been published.


The translation of Maura Power was completed in 1914 under the direction of Bergin. It was published later that year by the Irish Tract Society. Her translation was made without reference to the earlier work of O'Farrelly and Close. As with the earlier translation it is based principally on the Irish of Stowe B, with reference to both the Marsh copy and the second RIA copy where correlation was possible.


The following English edition of the Tract is substantially that of Power. In various places however, Power's translation ranges from obscure to contradictory, largely through an apparent lack of familiarity with the subject matter. In these parts, reference to O'Farrelly's translation invariably restores the intended sense of the passage. Using the work of **Close** and O'Farrelly, I have amended Power's translation in minimalist fashion. The required 'substantial' changes are all *acknowledged* in footnotes.


In addition, numerous 'minor' changes have been made to technical terminology that was ill fitting in Power's work. For example, the term Pol Airtic, is invariably translated as 'Arctic Pole'. This is quite misleading to a contemporary reader, since in the geocentric framework of Ptolemaic astronomy, the pole refers to that of the celestial sphere. In Chapter 35, we are told that the Pol Airtic can be viewed from the equator at an elevation of zero degrees, i.e., on the horizon. The author clearly refers to the North Celestial Pole. Reference simply to the Arctic Pole is hence, an apparent impossibility. To avoid this confusion, I have used the term Arctic (Celestial) Pole.


Another frequent point of confusion in Power's text arises from the fact that the Irish term cercall can variously mean 'orbit', 'circle' or 'sphere'. Power generally opts for the term 'orbit' when it refers to celestial matters. This has often been inappropriate. Chapter 16 deals at length with imaginary grid lines that define the celestial chart; 'meridian' and so forth. I have used the word 'circle' in such cases. I have retained the term 'orbit' only when it applies to the path of a planet, moon or sun, in accord with a geocentric model. A further variation occurs in Chapter 29 of the Tract where the term is also used as an alternative to speir, meaning a celestial sphere in Ptolemaic terminology. A rather isolated use of the term cercall is employed in a description of Cleomede's analogy of the potter's wheel. In this case it refers to the movement of small balls along grooves on the wheel. Power's use of the word
 


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'circle' merely serves to obscure the analogy. It seem neither she nor Bergin was familiar with the earlier analogy.


A slightly irritating element of O'Farrelly's and occasionally Power's translation has been the retention of the personal pronouns when referring to celestial objects such as planets and the sun or moon, the sun being 'she' and planets such as Mars and Jupiter being 'he'. While it sits comfortably in the Irish, its retention in an English translation can be misleading. I have therefore removed these accidental tags of Irish grammar.


A similar problem results from the variations in Irish terminology for the planets, stars and constellations. This has often let to confusion in Power's English translation. For example, in a passage describing the period of Saturn's orbit, the planet is referred to as the retlann (star). The reference to the planets as stars was not new in Irish (or Latin for that matter), during the Middle Ages, but the use of the English word 'star' when referring to a planet would be misleading to contemporary readers.


'Minor' alterations such as these have not been footnoted.


In a few places, there has been obvious corruption of the text. In Chapter 7 for example, it appears that a whole line of text had slipped from an early transcription. **Close** supplied the gist of this missing line and I have included it in italics, suitably footnoted. In Chapter 22 another obvious corruption of the text seems to have resulted from faulty restoration of contracted verbs. By changing the verbs to conditional mood, O'Farrelly was able to redeem the intended meaning. I have included these amendments in this translation.


For some reason, numerical terms have been very prone to scribal error[223](javascript:footNote('G600030/note223.html')). Some, such as that for the angular displacement of the sun and moon at the end of Chapter 25 date back to early times in the life of the Tract. Another in Chapter 21 seems to have slipped past the print proofs of the ITS publishers. The angle in the Irish text is correct, but the English one in error. I have made these corrections, duly footnoted.


Concerning the value of pi, Power expressed surprise that the Irish author had taken it as being 3 rather than 3 1/7. Assuming it to be a scribal error, Power corrected it to conform to the traditional value. The calculations within that Chapter however, take pi to be simply 3. I have left it as such, for it is quite clear that this was the value used by the author.


I have retained the almost all of the diagrams as they appear in the ITS publication. In the case of Figure 6, I have substituted the amended version of **Maxwell Close**. Both the Stowe B and Marsh version are distorted to the point of obscuring its meaning. The diagram of **Close** conforms to the Irish text and the equivalent diagram in the Latin edition of **Stabius**. One or two other 


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diagrams have suffered distortions almost as severe, at the hand of subsequent scribes, but I have retained these as per the ITS publication. Figure 20 is one such case. The corresponding figure in the **Stabius** edition of the Latin is also corrupted and this seems to have led to confusion in the Irish text as well. This corruption of the text at the hand of the author has been retained. 


In spite of these amendments, the following English translation remains substantially a re-edition of Power's work, hopefully with its confusions and contradictions rectified.


I have included most, but not all, of **Close**'s commentary to the Tract by way of footnotes. He was on occasion prone to elaborate in minute detail on elements that were rather tangential to the main body of the Tract. A few I have omitted, some I have curtailed. The occasional footnote from Maura Power has also been included. I have added additional footnotes where appropriate. The footnotes of Power and **Close** are all acknowledged.














